The Culture Of The And Costa Rica - 1650 Words

Globalization influence almost everything around the world from the largest to the smallest country. The world leaders in how business is conducted to the appeal we wear and how our dietary needs are met. Belize and Costa Rica are two examples of the creative balancing act needed to understand the past to use the knowledge for making the informal decision, such as on cultural issues, environmental, religion choices, language, and economic development. Spanish explorers imprint has been left in Belize and Costa Rica throughout each infrastructure, religion and demographic. However, the first to establish a legacy were the Mayans. Although the Spanish conquered the indigenous people and attempted to erase their existence, we have discovered remains left behind more than a hundred years ago. These excavations have revealed incredible relics that the tremendous contribution they left in the world. Take for instance the Lamanai, is an unreconstructed memorial center, which, was idled in t he 300 BC the construction resembles the pyramids with a flat top design generally used for religious practices. Among the ruins the government initiated clean up and uncovered artifacts detailing the Mayans daily lives, cultural actives, and tool. Whereas the influence of the Spanish invasion are likely to be seen in the form of religion. The Spanish left behind architecture, remnants such as grand cathedrals. St. John’s Cathedral located in the town’s main square. The cathedral like many othersShow MoreRelatedCosta Rica Culture Paper2043 Words   |  9 PagesEver wanted to go south to a Latin American country? Well there is plenty to choose from but my best pick of where to go would be to this little, beautiful country culturally and physically, called Costa Rica. You don t believe me, huh? Decide for yourself. 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Located ten degrees north of the equator Costa Rica is in the tropics and even though it is a small country it has a very diverse landscape and a variety of weather as well. One unusual aspect of Costa Rica is that the country has no armyRead MoreCosta Ric A Central American Country1165 Words   |  5 PagesCosta Rica is a Central American country located between Panama and Nicaragua. The west and east coast of Costa Rica are facing the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The main language spoken is Spanish, although English is widely heard. This country is very popular among surfers because the most powerful waves known to man are enjoyed in the town of Tamarindo. Costa Rica is the safest country in the region because of its booming economy and general friendliness of the people. Also, majority of the countryRead More Costa Rica Essay1076 Words   |  5 Pages Costa Rica nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Known for it’s natural beauty and gracious people is a small country located in Central America. 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A Study of Development and Analysis of Plasma and Lcd Tv Industry Free Essays

(1) Title of the Research Work: â€Å"A STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS OF PLASMA AND LCD TV INDUSTRY AND IT’S IMPACT ON GENERAL CTV MARKET:- WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MUMBAI REGION† (2) Introduction: History and development of audiovisual medium: Perception is the frame of mind of a customer about a particular product or service which customer would like to avail. It is the way a customer look at anything. In short it is the process of perceiving about anything. We will write a custom essay sample on A Study of Development and Analysis of Plasma and Lcd Tv Industry or any similar topic only for you Order Now Customer perception about any product or service is an important parameter in the whole marketing scenario and global economy as well. It contributes to the social, cultural, environmental, political and economic growth of the nation. Post-war mass communication and media studies have had two periods of radical change, the late 1960s-early 1970s and the1980s, of which the former was characterized by the rise of Marxism and the latter by its decline. These transformations did not take place simultaneously in all countries, but as a generalization this seems to hold true. For instance, Frands Mortensen (1994) recalls the year 1977 as the turning point when critical vocabulary in his work began, for the time being at least, to fade out. Mortensen’s fate was shared by many of the turn-of-the-seventies generation throughout Europe, the soixante-huitards or ’68ers’ as the French call them. As a result, some avoided radical thought altogether, denouncing their Marxist past; others changed to postmodernism, while a few still adhered to the Marxist project by trying to reshape it. However, they all had to keep abreast of the new 1980s generation– a generation more in tune with economies of deregulation, individualist policies and cultural anti-modernism. The 20th century has witnessed at least three periods during which the nature and status of moving images have been at the centre of more or less comprehensive cultural-theoretical concerns: one in the 1920s with the stabilization of the feature film and film art; one in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of full-blown television; and one from the 1980s to the present with the transformation of television, combined with the introduction of video and computer- based media. One of the underlying assumptions during this 70-year-debate boils down to the idea that if there is one thing that characterizes 20th-century culture, at least its latter half, then it is audiovisuality. It is this view that unites 1920s avant-gardists and cineaste-critics (e. g. Balazs 1982), 1950s and 1960s filmologists in France and Italy (e. g. Cohen-Seat 1961)who receded but were, unfortunately, overshadowed by Marshall McLuhan, and the 1980s postmodernists (e. . Kroker Cook 1986). In the following discussion, I will, on the basis of this continuing debate, assume the centrality of image and sound media to our century. One of the key issues in audiovisual media theory, then, is concerned with accounting for this centrality of moving images in contemporary life. It is here, I argue, that the Frankfurt School may still prove helpful. In what sense is the 20th century the â€Å"age of the image† (Gance 1927) as well as that of the society of spectacle, entertainment and interaction? Or, how are the increasing audiovisual and aesthetic components of 20th century civilization interconnected? To answer these questions, media theory has to account for four major empirical phenomena and historical periods (for another synoptically view of the audiovisual 20th century, cf. Zielinski 1989): the birth and beginnings of film (The Age of Early Cinema, 1895-1915), the heyday of the standard feature film (The Age of the Classical Hollywood Film, 1920-1960), the replacement of cinema films by television as the major audiovisual medium (The Age of Paleo-television, 1960-1980) and the transformation of television in the new audiovisual landscape of, inter alia, video and multimedia (The Age of Neo-television, 1980-; the terms ‘paleo-’ and ‘neo-television’,coming from Umberto Eco, seem to have established themselves [cf. e. g. Casetti Odin 1990]). Because these are understandably highly complex and still insufficiently explored issues, let me just give a cursory idea of the explanatory potential of Critical media theory: I will elaborate on the argument that each change of period –from the early cinema to the Hollywood film, from the Hollywood film to paleo-television and from paleo- to neo-television –involves expansion and intensification of some aspects of the general aesthetisisation of the everyday world To simplify matters for this essay, I shall attribute one single explanatory aspect to each change. First, what distinguishes the classical film of the Hollywood type from early cinema is the standardization of three major attributes: the length, type and screening time of the film. As a result, going to the movies means going to see a fiction film at a scheduled time. What this amounts to is to make film-viewing akin to attending more traditional spectacles such as theare, opera or ballet. In other words, it intensifies the spectacularity of films, for from now on moving images are to be received with more sustained concentration. The symbol for this new relation is perhaps first of all the film star, who functions as the imagined object of identifications and projections inherent in one’s relation to the spectacle of films. Second, of the many differences between the cinema film and broadcast television, two are relevant in this context: moving images are privatized as they enter the home and their viewing becomes a daily pursuit. It is in this way that television, like the periodic press and broadcast radio before it, begins to bind the home incessantly to the outside world, which means a tremendous expansion of the interactive potential of moving images. What is new in these image-relations is perhaps captured best by the recurring, wave-like nature of such television programmes as news, fiction series or sport events; it is their ability a community or an audience out of them that crystallises their interactiveness. Third, the change from paleo- to neo-television mainly implies Americanisation, i. e. , commercialization in a multi-channel context, and seems to concern predominantly the development of European television. The struggle for maximising audiences forces channels to find ways both to attract viewers and to allure them to stay tuned. In this process, entertainment – fiction more probably than fact, exciting fact more probably than non-exciting – is likely to gain the upperhand. An application of Horkheimer and Adorno’s culture-industry theory to the Audiovisual 20th Century: the periods, the determinants of the changes of period and the corresponding paradigms crystallising the changes. 895-1915: The Age of Early Cinema : Spectacle: Film star : 1915-1960: The Age of the Classical Hollywood Film : Interaction: News, fiction series, sports event : 1960-1980: The Age of Paleo-television : Entertainment:TV commercial : 1980- : The Age of Neo-television Considering the commercial as the prototype of this trend, but it is such basic virtues of television commercials as non-seriousness (‘nothing really matters that much’) which in the Age of Neo-television tend to become universalised. Granting the centrality of audiovisual media in the 20th century and the heuristic contribution reading Dialectic of Enlightenment may make to our understanding of it, what other reasons could be offered after the adverse 1980s conditions in defence of the re-actualisation of the Frankfurt School in media and mass communication studies? To conclude, let me pursue two further arguments. First, dissatisfaction with French theorizing has for some time now made room for alternative strains of critical thought; this dissolution of the structuralist and post-structuralist dynasty (cf. Steinman1988 on its repercussions on US film and television studies) has benefitted, among others, American pragmatism (Rorty), Soviet semiotics (Bakhtin) and the Frankfurt School (Adorno). As a matter of fact, it has been argued (Hohendahl 1992) that since the 1980s Adorno has become more popular as a research subject than he ever was at the peak of the student movement. Second,if one is to believe the opinion of the majority to be gathered from a recent survey of the field (Levy Gurevitch 1993), the mass communication research community, especially its US quarters, have been seized by a sense of disorientation. The name of the malaise is marginalisation: media scholars feel as if they are out of touch with more established disciplines (what is more, this feeling is supported by prevailing citation patterns of the field; cf. So 1988). There is no panacea for the situation because the discipline is filled with contradictory pressures, but one could argue, like Graham Murdock (1991), that mass communication research should regain its contact with the general project of the human sciences, which is the historical study of modernity. It is especially here that the tradition of the Frankfurt School, as the ases of Jurgen Habermas and others exhibit, has not reached the end of its journey yet. It is in this sense that the intimate relationship between audiovisuality and what has been termed the â€Å"Short Twentieth Century† (Hobsbawm 1994) turns into one of the key avenues by which media studies can approach and contribute to the study of modernity and its contemporary vicissitudes. (3) In dian television industry The Indian Television industry is going through turbulent transformation. Companies are relooking at their strategies and are desperate for growth. The entrenched position of the Indian market leaders in CTVs’ like Videocon, BPL and Onida has been challenged by the MNCs such as LG, AIWA, Akai, Panasonic, Samsung, Sony, Philips and Sharp; some in a perceptible way and others threatening to do so. The changing environment demands fresh thinking to gain the cutting edge advantage. This study attempts to look at the various customer perception oriented factors operating in the PLASMA and LCD television industry irrespective of the brand of the television Indian or Imported. (4) New developments in CTV industry: An introduction of PLASMA and LCD television in the TV market: Technology may have blurred the differences, but television viewing is more than just about watching moving images. Once you’ve made the right choice, the picture is clearer. Choosing a television set can be quite a daunting task especially if the customer is looking for an LCD or plasma. Choices abound and there are some myths about the technologies, too. Unlike what many believe, there are major differences between the two types and you can’t substitute one type for the other merely on their looks. To be honest, there isn’t much of a hood to look under. But inside the sleek and thin exterior, plasma TVs employ a matrix of tiny plasma gas cells that are charged by precise electrical voltage to create a picture. In the case of LCD panels, liquid crystal display make up the screen. Imagine liquid crystal pressed between two glass plates to which varying electrical charge is applied to create an image. That’s an LCD television. Despite the advances made in LCD and plasma technology, however, there are experts and gamers (they really do use TVs a lot) maintain that CRT (cathode ray tube or our regular TV) still offers the best quality. Depending on customer’s budget and his requirements (maybe in that order of preference), the choice of an LCD or plasma TV will vary. One line of thinking insists that for basic home theatre requirements, plasma screens are slightly better since they can render black better than LCD TVs. This means that the contrast and, therefore , the level of detail on a plasma TV would be better. The reason LCDs cannot achieve as true a black as plasma TVs can has to do with the liquid that is backlit and does leak a little. Improvements are happening all the time and in due course, this should be rectified, but by then, plasma may have become the predominant choice. In addition to the above, one of the major factors in favour of plasma TVs is their better viewing angle. This allows viewers to sit at acute angles and still get a clear picture. But it’s not all bad for LCD TVs. One of the biggest advantages they have over plasma TVs is the price . But even technically, there are some advantages that an LCD TV offers. For instance, LCD TVs have higher native resolutions than plasma TVs of the same size. What this means is there are more pixels on the screen and if you are one of those who like to see every minute detail, an LCD may offer more. Of course, this also depends on the source and an ordinary cable TV connection won’t let you notice the difference. The one myth about LCD TVs that doesn’t hold true for new generation models is the ‘blur’ that was noted in fast scenes or when watching sports (more noticeable when watching a car race as opposed to cricket or snooker! ). This has improved significantly and the difference between a plasma and LCD in this regard is almost negligible. The running cost of a TV is something that many don’t consider. With increasing screen sizes, the power consumption will also increase and in this regard, LCD TVs outscore plasma TVs once again. LCD TVs are said to consume up to 30% less power than plasma TVs. An another downside that plasma TVs suffer from is the screen burn-in. For whatever reason (and we cannot really think of a reason good enough), you leave your TV on with a still image (say you paused a movie), there is a chance that the ghost of this image may get burned in permanently on the screen. Which means that even if you turn it off, a faded image of this will be visible. While newer generation Plasma TVs suffer less from this ailment, it hasn’t been entirely eradicated. And if you are wondering about TV channel logos, they are translucent and don’t leave the same sort of ghost behind! When you are looking at plasma or LCD TVs, you may come across a piece of information that says â€Å"60,000 hours† or some such number. This is the time for which your plasma TV will have optimum brightness after which it will start to fade off. In case of plasma TVs, the accepted duration ranges between 30,000 and 60,000 hours while in case of LCD TVs, it is virtually guaranteed for 60,000 hours. If you actually convert this to days, it works out to about 2,500 days or about six years of continuous viewing. * LCD TVs offer more pixels and so you can see more minute details * LCD TVs are said to consume up to 30% less power than plasmas * Plasma screens render black better than LCD TVs. The contrast and level of detail are therefore better * Plasmas offer better viewing angles. It allows you to get a clear picture even from acute angles. Hence after having the preliminary information we get convinced that, it is the customer’s perception which finally takes decision about the type of TV to be purchased. (LCD OR PLASMA TV) 5) Exact nature of the study: As because the differentiation from the customer’s point of view, is no more existed as far as the PLASMA AND LCD television field is concerned, the researcher is interested to find out the perception oriented competent parameters(dominant areas) which are driving the PLASMA AND LCD television market in Mumbai regio n. In doing so, the researcher will be surveying the customer, user and dealers (retailer) in Mumbai market to analyse the PLASMA and LCD television market. (6) Objectives of the study: a)To identify and analyse various factors influencing the purchase of TV set by the customer. )To differentiate the factors between PLASMA TV and LCD TV. c) To study the impact of new developments (PLASMA TV and LCD TV) on traditional CTV market in Mumbai region. d)To study the current scenario of various companies manufacturing and marketing PLASMA and LCD TV and normal CTV in India. e)To understand the customers’ preferences about the various parameters of PLASMA over LCD TV. IMPORTANCE AND NEED OF THE STUDY: A) Now a days the PLASMA and LCD TV manufacturing and marketing Companies are relooking for the best strategies and are desperate for growth. B) This study will provide the preference of the customer in the changing marketing environment. C) This study will provide the complete knowledge about the factors influencing customers’ preference to the CTV market. D) It will make the supplier alert about his own strengths and weaknesses and ultimately will give an insight to enhance his sales in the market. Also the supplier will be aware about favourable and unfavourable factors of the customer which influence on the profitability of the industry. E) It will be witnessing a new scenario with a new market profile. F) To the layman, however, it’s not the technology and how it works that matters but it’s the quality of the TV that he is worried about. Both LCD and PLASMA TVs offer excellent picture quality. But obviously both have their pros and cons. With this study the producer will get an opportunity to understand the same. Significance of CUSTOMER PERCEPTION in TV MEDIUM: 1)To offer better quality of service to the customer after knowing the perception about the product. 2) It would be more convenient to design better Marketing strategy. 3) Provide fast response to the customer (7) Research Methodology Research Design Research Methodology includes the type of primary and secondary research used for this project i. e. the way in which the data are collected for the research project. The methodology will also include the plan for sampling, the relevant field work and the analysis tools to be sued to interpret the data so collected. Methodology refers to more than a simple set of methods; rather it refers to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie a particular study. This is why scholarly literature often includes a section on the methodology of the researchers. A Research Design provides the framework to be sued as a guide in collecting and analyzing data. Research can be Exploratory, Descriptive or of Casual type. Amongst this Descriptive Research Design has been chosen to carry out this project. Descriptive Research is carried out with definite objective(s) and hence it results in definite conclusion. This research tries to describe the opinion of the respondents on the selected topic of the project. Hypothesis: 1) Customer prefer LCD TV over PLASMA TV. 2) There is a significant impact of PLASMA and LCD TV on the sales of general CTV. Universe of the Study: The universe of the study is all customer, user, dealers(retailers) in the Mumbai region only. Sampling Plan : About 100 customers(mix of perspective customers and users) and around 50 retailers will be selected as a representative sample from all over Mumbai. As the study is limited to Mumbai city, all the samples will be randomly selected from Mumbai city only. Census is the process of obtaining response from / about each of the member of the population which is not always possible due to the various constraints to the researcher like time, cost etc. In such situations the alternate method of data collection is sampling. Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of randomized number of constituents of the population of the study and collecting data about their characteristics, facts and opinions. Sampling takes lesser time to collect data at lesser cost and also as the data is less its accuracy often increases as compared to huge data. Sampling methods can be classified into probability and non-probability sampling. In probability sampling each unit in the population has a probability of being selected as the unit of the sample which varies as per method of probability sampling is chosen. In non-probability sampling there may be instances that certain units of population will have zero probability of selection because the interviewer considered his / her own judgment, convenience and bias for the selection of the sample units of such sampling. Though the probability sampling gives better accuracy in terms of confidence level of the inferences of the study, there are many practical difficulties in fully executing it6. Further, the sample can also be stratified based on the various governing variables. Appropriate questionnaires will be structured and circulated amongst the sampling units. Sampling Tools The Primary Research shall be focused on Survey, Expert Consultations and Qualitative Research which will include in depth interviews, The specific tools will include. †¢ Questionnaire †¢ Personal Discussions / Interviews schedules. Data collection Data is the basic input to any decision making process in a research study; processing which gives the statistics of importance of the study which can be categorized in to primary and secondary data. A) Primary data: Primary data may be collected from customer, user, dealers (retailers) through schedules and questionnaires. B) Secondary data: Secondary data can be traced from office record, journals, annual reports and other office documents. Analysis Interpretation of Data: Statistics is the art and science of collecting, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data7. The reason for analyzing data is to understand the variation and its causes in the phenomenon. Since variation is present in all the phenomena, knowledge of it leads to better decisions about a phenomenon that produces the data. It is from this perspective that the learning of statistics enables the decision maker to understand how to draw conclusions about the large population based upon information obtained from the sample. For the purpose of this research: the thought process that focuses on ways to discover, manage, and decrease the variation present in all phenomenon is statistical thinking; data is the collection of observations of variables of interest while the population is the collection of all elements of interest. This research study is focused on statistical theory in formulating and solving problems. Descriptive as well as inferential statistics methods will be used in the research; descriptive statistics will include graphic and numeric method both. Limitations of the study: a)The geographical location of the study is limited to Mumbai city only. b) Only the impact of PLASMA and LCD TV on general CTV market will be studied under the proposed research. c) Brand differentiation of all available TV sets in the market will not be considered. d) Technological aspects will not be covered in the study. e) The study is limited to the customers in the age group of 25 to 35yrs. 8) Plan of Work |SR. No. |Particulars of proposed research work |Duration (Months) | | | | | |1. |Collection of Primary Data. |4 | |2 |Collection of Secondary Data. |4 | |3 |Typing the Manuscript. |2 | |4 |Proof Reading. |2 | |5 |Development of Analysis Plan. |4 | |6 |Data Interpretation. 1 | |7 |Drawing Conclusion. |2 | |8 |Drawing Suggestions. |1 | |9 |Miscellaneous work. |4 | | | | | | |Total |24 | (9) Chapter Scheme Chapter 1: Introduction: History and development of audiovisual medium: This chapter deals with the historical development in the audiovisual medium and evolution in the field of TV industry. Chapter 2: Indian television industry This chapter covers the actual progress in the modern age in the field of television in India. Chapter 3: New developments in CTV industry: An introduction of PLASMA and LCD television in the TV market: In this chapter, specifically the advancements in TV industry in terms of PLASMA and LCD television and their pros and cons will be explain in detailed. Chapter 4: Exact nature of the study: Here, the emphasis will be given on the latest developments in the field of TV Industry (including PLASMA and LCD TV. Chapter 5: Objectives of the study: This chapter covers the basic objectives behind conducting the study. Chapter 6: Analysis and interpretation of Data: This chapter deals with analysis of data using suitable statistical tools and the presentation of the same. Chapter 7: Conclusion and recommendations: In this chapter the conclusion will be drawn on the basis of data analysis and the recommendations shall be presented. Bibliography: Appropriat e bibliography will be given at the end of the report for all secondary data in the theses. How to cite A Study of Development and Analysis of Plasma and Lcd Tv Industry, Papers

Arguments Regarding Appropriate Technique †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Arguments Regarding Appropriate Technique? Answer: Introduction: Transition materials like titanium are advanced metal having unique mechanical properties. However, there is lot of arguments regarding the appropriate technique that can be applied to manufacture the metal due to the high melting point and high strength of the materials. Although many alternative technique are available for the fabrication of intermetallic structure of titanium, however their use is often limited by high cost and lack of its application at the industry level (Leuders et al. 2013). As fabrication of metal is also being done by the use of selective laser melting, this literature review aims to find the role of selective laser melting technique on the microstructure and properties of the metal. This technique has been mainly chosen for evaluation because it is several advantages of the technique such as lesser steps in production and high efficiency of the material used. The outcome of the review can give clear idea about the strength and limitation of the technique an d the scope of its application in the manufacturing of titanium materials. Literature review: Microstructure and properties of Ti-SiC mixture fabricated by selective laser melting Transition metals like silicides and carbides have advanced properties such as low density, stiffness and environmental resistance. However, one challenge in manufacturing intermetallics is their high melting point (Tsai and Yeh 2014). Many well-developed methods are available for the fabrication of metallic parts and the research by (Krakhmalev and Yadroitsev 2014) proposed manufacturing titanium substrate by means of selective laser melting. The researcher tried fabricating the titanium substrate with titanium and silicon carbides by selective melting of the Ti-SiC powder mixture. This was done by Ytterbiums fibre laser and the structure and mechanical properties of metal was examined. The main purpose of adapting the selective laser technique was to find the correlation between microstructure and composition of the precursor powder. Mechanical properties were assessed by the parameters of hardness, indentation fracture toughness and abrasive wear resistance. The researchers also g ave a promising approach to achieve structural homogeneity of the material. The examination of the top surface and longitudinal structure of metals by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed crack networks on the surface and dark stripes were also found in areas enriched with Si and C. Gradient zone was also formed in all coating due to partial melting of the substrate. Hence, the overall conclusion from the study results was that composite structure was successfully formed by selective melting however the irregularities that was observed includes agglomerates of SiC at interlayer and unequal distribution of elements in the track. The study adequately presented the reasons for this anomaly. The agglomeration occurred due to change in phase whereas the heterogeneous distribution was seen due to the penetration of laser radiation on powder base. In the area mechanical properties, hardness of the metal was influenced by coatings containing high amount of SiC (Krakhmalev and Yadroitsev, 2014). The strength of the study is that the research provided innovative technique to produce metals with high melting points. Secondly, the researcher also provided appropriate approaches to improve any anomaly in the process and enhance the homogeneity of the coating. Microstructural evolution of titanium during selective laser melting Another research study highlights the advantage of selective laser melting (SLM) on the development of the microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V. Selective laser melting has emerged as an effective additive manufacturing technique as it facilitates development of complex parts by means of selectively melting successive layers of powder (Read et al. 2015). Thijs et al. (2010) focused on the development of the microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V and determining the impact of scanning strategy on the microstructure of metals. The main advantage of the SLM process in this research is that the technique promotes development of complex geometrical features, which is not possible through conventional methods. Compared to the research by Krakhmalev and Yadroitsev, (2014) which showed the limitation of SLM due to building up of thermal stress and metal segregation, Thijs et al. (2010) study moved further to deal with the problem by analyzing the impact of different process parameters on the SLM process. The finding of research showed that top view of the structure revealed the scanning strategy. Based on the movement of the laser beam, different patterns and orientation were seen. Secondly, energy density also had an impact on the results and the variation in the scanning velocity resulted in different band patterns. The research also gave proper explanation of the impact of scanning strategy on the microstructure. The main strength of this journal article is that the researcher adequately explained the reason for martenistic structure of Ti-6Al-4V. High correlation was also found between the orientation of the grains and scanning velocity and scanning strategy. The scanning strategy can ac t as a promising tool in managing the grain orientation in metals maintaining the microstructural orientation. The study is also consistent with the study by Leuders et al., (2013) which showed development of fatigue resistance and crack growth performance following the development of TiAl6V4 by SLM technique. Impact of the heat treatment of Ti6AlV4 on the microstructure and mechanical properties There is an argument that optimization of mechanical treatment via heat treatment gives contrasting results when the metal is produced by selective laser melting (SLM) compared to conventional method. With this insight, Vrancken et al. 2012) investigated about the effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V. The focus was also on evaluating the effect of time, temperature and cooling rate on the microstructure of titanium. The researcher used Ti6Al4V powder as a base material for the SLM process and the examination of the microstructure after heat treatment revealed columnar grains in the building direction. Secondly, the impact of temperature on the microstructure was that the martensitic structure changed into the combination of and . The columnar grain was visible at the sides of the metal. In addition, the residence time at high temperature was found to affect grain growth. However, one significant outcome was that heating rate was not regarde d to have major effect during the heat treatment. The performance of the microstructure on the basis of different cooling rates revealed low cooling rates promoted growth of grains. Different types of heat treatment was also found to change the mechanical properties of the metal. The results of the research also pointed out to limitation of heat treatment on reducing the yield stress. Therefore, desired results were not obtained from heat treatment. However, the study was useful in pointing out the improvement in fracture strain of the material after heat temperature. The effect of heat temperature on yield stress was also presented graphically which gave better clarity to the research. The key implication of this research study is that since heat treatment has not given expected results, there is a need for further research to determine other combined treatment that would optimize the tensile properties of titanium. Microstructure and mechanical behavior of Ti-6Al-4 V by rapid layer manufacturing The research by Murr et al., (2009) is significant as it focused on manufacturing Ti-6Al-4 V for biomedical application. As there is rise in knee joint replacement surgery, there is a need to improve the quality of bone plates and joint replacement. This is because most of the components do work well for patients who have abnormal autonomy. Another challenge in the fabrication of the implant components is that sometimes manufacturing complex shapes becomes difficult (Zalnezhad et al. 2014). Murr et al., (2009) compared the microstructure and mechanical behavior of simple geometric products by selective laser melting and electronic beam melting compared to wrought and cast products. The review gave the idea about thermo-mechanical processing, microstructure and mechanical property of wrought and cast Ti-6Al-4V and compared it with electron beam melting and selective laser melting. For biomedical application, the main intention is to produce cast parts with crack propagation and creep resistance properties. Secondly, porosity is eliminated by means of heat treatment. Wrought products particularly have the advantage of tailoring it to desired mechanical properties. In addition, the comparison parts revealed that powder metallurgy is beneficial for manufacturing medical devices. The advantage of layer manufacturing was supported by the ability of SLM to fabricate complex scaffold products. Despite this information, there is need for future research in the area of process parameters needed to produce specific microstructures. The study also pointed out that cost difference can be maintained by recycling waste powder. Mechanical properties in Titanium metallic composite after SLM: As the SLM process provides flexible approach to manufacturing metals, there is great scope of exploring their role in creation of alloys and metal-metal composites. Vrancken (2014) took Ti-6Al-4V with 10% MO powder to examine its unique microstructure following its creation by the SLM technique. Past studies have also focused on combining different powders to create desired products and hardness. In case of the combination of the Ti-6Al-4V with MO powder, columnar grains were found after the SLM. However, no such grains was found if 10% MO was added to it. The MO particle was distributed homogenously in the matrix. The mechanical properties were in also explained in Ti-6Al-4V+10 MO through the stress/curve. The study is considered important because MO phase was found to be successful in disrupting transformation from phase to martensite which occurred in Ti-6Al-4V alone. Therefore, the choice of combining Mo was found useful in this research due to its property to stabilize the p hase and high melting temperature. This further promoted the retention of the melted Mo particle in the titanium matrix. The content of the alloy can be modified too to achieve the desired microstructure and physical properties. The key strength of this literature is that the capability of SLM in processing powder mixtures was demonstrated. The study proved the potential of SLM on adding alloy elements and reducing stress issues. The above research focused on the performance of Ti-Mo alloy and the Chlebus et al. (2011) conducted a research to examine the mechanical properties and microstructure of Ti-AL-Nb alloy. The rational for studying the Ti-AL-Nb alloy is that it is often used as implant materials and has been found to have beneficial mechanical properties such as biotolerance and corrosion resistance. Three versions of the alloy were produced and its mechanical characteristics were tested by the parameters of tensile strength, compression testing and hardness. The characterization was done through optical and scanning electron microscopy and the X-ray diffraction alloy. After the manufacturing of the alloy, the examination of its microstructure revealed the structure is dependent on quenching at phase and tempering at high temperature. The thermal history also determined the structural changes occurring in layered alloy. Different orientation in solidification observed and the columnar grains pattern w as determined by laser movement. On the parameter of hardness too, it was found that hardness property was proportional to the specimen area. In the area of tensile properties too, specimen building strategies determined the distribution of residual stress and tensile strength. The scanning strategy was found to influence above parameters, however no changes were seen in the compression strengths due to scanning strategies. On the examination of fracture surface of the alloy, many quasi cleavage fracture surfaces were detected. Distinction between the smooth and flat structure and the rough structure was adequately presented. On the whole, the alloy was found to be susceptible to fatigue cracks. The study proposed strategies to reduce the property of the material by means of thermal treatment process. Hence, more extensive research will be required on the role of thermal treatment in reducing porosity. Conclusion The literature review focused on evaluating the microstructure and mechanical properties of titanium by means of SLM. The review of studies revealed limitation in approach and how the limitation was address by means of adjusting different process parameters. The improvement in structure was also proposed by combination with other metals. Secondly, heat treatment was found to be an effective approach to improving the microstructure and increasing the resistance of the titanium material. As the titanium material is increasingly used in knee implants, there is a need to further study the effect of heat treatment on microstructure of the metal. Reference Chlebus, E., Ku?nicka, B., Kurzynowski, T. and Dyba?a, B., 2011. Microstructure and mechanical behaviour of Ti?6Al?7Nb alloy produced by selective laser melting.Materials Characterization,62(5), pp.488-495. Krakhmalev, P. and Yadroitsev, I., 2014. Microstructure and properties of intermetallic composite coatings fabricated by selective laser melting of TiSiC powder mixtures.Intermetallics,46, pp.147-155. Leuders, S., Thne, M., Riemer, A., Niendorf, T., Trster, T., Richard, H.A. and Maier, H.J., 2013. On the mechanical behaviour of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting: Fatigue resistance and crack growth performance.International Journal of Fatigue,48, pp.300-307. Murr, L.E., Quinones, S.A., Gaytan, S.M., Lopez, M.I., Rodela, A., Martinez, E.Y., Hernandez, D.H., Martinez, E., Medina, F. and Wicker, R.B., 2009. Microstructure and mechanical behavior of Ti6Al4V produced by rapid-layer manufacturing, for biomedical applications.Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials,2(1), pp.20-32. Read, N., Wang, W., Essa, K. and Attallah, M.M., 2015. Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg alloy: Process optimisation and mechanical properties development.Materials Design (1980-2015),65, pp.417-424. Thijs, L., Verhaeghe, F., Craeghs, T., Van Humbeeck, J. and Kruth, J.P., 2010. A study of the microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V.Acta Materialia,58(9), pp.3303-3312. Tsai, M.H. and Yeh, J.W., 2014. High-entropy alloys: a critical review.Materials Research Letters,2(3), pp.107-123. Vrancken, B., Thijs, L., Kruth, J.P. and Van Humbeeck, J., 2012. Heat treatment of Ti6Al4V produced by Selective Laser Melting: Microstructure and mechanical properties.Journal of Alloys and Compounds,541, pp.177-185. Vrancken, B., Thijs, L., Kruth, J.P. and Van Humbeeck, J., 2014. Microstructure and mechanical properties of a novel titanium metallic composite by selective laser melting.Acta Materialia,68, pp.150-158. Zalnezhad, E., Baradaran, S., Bushroa, A.R. and Sarhan, A.A., 2014. Mechanical property enhancement of Ti-6Al-4V by multilayer thin solid film Ti/TiO2 nanotubular array coating for biomedical application.Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A,45(2), pp.785-797.

What I Have Learned in This Course Essay Example

What I Have Learned in This Course: Essay I have learned a great deal in this course in relation to writing argumentative essays.   There is much research involved, as well as objectivity to the position taken on a particular subject.   These are, what I have learned, to be the two most important factors in the preparation for a paper.   A writer must look at all possible arguments to support his or her position and make this very concise in the thesis statement in the first paragraph of the work.   Similarly, one must look at any counterarguments that could arise from the thesis and explore these, as well.   All of this research must be done before the paper is written and woven in the supporting paragraphs in the piece.   Of equal importance is taking a professional stance on the position/thesis and not an emotionally-driven stance.   Using â€Å"I† statements is unacceptable, such as stating â€Å"I think that this is the best policy†, for instance.   Conclusions must come from extensive data review and demonstrate an extremely objective, yet clear stance on the subject from beginning to end.All supporting paragraphs, after the introductory paragraph, that includes the thesis and main points that support it, should be filled with explanatory data to provide cause for the writer’s position.   After these arguments (supported by other research) are presented, then counterarguments should be noted.   Having not only an literature review before beginning a paper, but, also, an outline with supporting arguments for the position and counter claims to the position with a response to them will make this portion of the argumentative paper easier and is extremely beneficial to the first draft of the work.   It is standard in a shorter essay to use four supporting paragraphs that all flow consistently from paragraph to paragraph and a conclusion that does not introduce new facts, but highlights the importance of the writer’s previous information in this final p aragraph.This final paragraph should not simply reiterate everything that is already written, but restate the main points and help further support the important stance taken on an issue. This â€Å"wrap-up† of the paper should leave no doubt in the reader’s mind as to exactly what the writer intends the reader to absorb and the importance of the issue to that reader.   If further writing and research on the subject is planned, the final paragraph should indicate this.   As many times, a short argumentative essay may evolve into a larger research project.After compiling the research, the outline, and then the first draft of the essay, a writer must then review the work and make any needed changes to the paper.   Grammatical errors should be corrected, as well as any language that is unclear and may confuse the reader.   These essays must be very precise and to the point, so they may involve more than one revision to make a great final paper. I have, also, learne d to ask for help involving feedback and constructive criticism, to help understand how another person views my essay.   I have learned so much in this class involving this topic and realize that if I follow these â€Å"rules† of writing I can create a great paper.   It was hard for me personally, to ask for help, but learned that that is one of the best ways to learn more about how to be a better writer, listener, and student.

SAT Literature Subject Test Terms to Know Essays

SAT Literature Subject Test Terms to Know Essays SAT Literature Subject Test Terms to Know Paper SAT Literature Subject Test Terms to Know Paper Essay Topic: Literature allegory A story with underlying symbols that really represent something else. A character can be allegorical. alliteration Repetition of a consonant sound for emphasis. allusion A reference to something or someone, usually literary. anachronism Placing a person or object in an inappropriate historical situation. It can be deliberate or unintentional. analogy Comparing something to something else. anecdote A short narrative, story, or tale. antagonist The major character opposing the protagonist. Usually the villain. anthropomorphism Assigning human attributes, such as emotions or physical characteristics, to nonhuman things. Often used for attributing human characteristics to animals. Similar to personification, but usually is applied to animals, while personification is applied to all types of things. argument A summary or short statement of the plot or subject of a literary work. diction The authors choice of word and sentence structure, taking into account correctness, clearness, and effectiveness. Typically, there are four levels: formal, informal, colloquial, and slang. elegy A mournful and melancholy poem or song, usually to pay tribute to a deceased person. emphasis Special forcefulness of expression that gives importance to something singled out. fable A story that has a moral, usually involving animals as the main characters. figurative language Language characterized by figures of speech such as metaphors and similes as well as elaborate expression through imagery. hyperbole A deliberate exaggeration. imagery An authors use of descriptive and figurative language used to create a picture in the readers minds eye. indirect dialogue Language that communicates what was expressed in the dialogue, without using a direct quotation. irony An expression of meaning that is opposite of the literal meaning. meaning Something that one wishes to convey, especially by language. metaphor A comparison like a simile, without the use of like or as. Its a little subtler. Its important to note, however, that in literary criticism, the word metaphor is frequently used when, strictly speaking, the term simile applies. meter The rhythm of a poem. The most common is iambic. narrative A literary representation of an event or a storythe text itself. onomatopoeia A word intended to simulate the actual sound of the thing or action it describes. oxymoron A phrase in which the words are contradictory. paean An expression of joyful praise. parable A story that has a moral. paradox This is a phrase that appears to be contradictory but actually contains some basic truth that resolves the apparent contradiction. parallelism The repetition of sounds, meanings, or structures to create a certain style. parody A literary work in which the style of an author is imitated for comic effect or ridicule. pastoral A work that deals with the lives of people, especially shepherds, in the country or in nature (as opposed to people in a city). pathos Something that evokes a feeling of pity or sympathy. personification Assigning human attributes to something nonhuman. perspective The viewpoint from which the narrator or character sees things. point of view The vantage point from which a story is presented to a reader. protagonist The main character, usually the hero. rhyme scheme The way that a poems rhymes are arranged. satire Ridicule of a subject, usually as a social criticism. simile A comparison of two things using the words like or as. stanza The divisions in a poem, like a paragraph to prose. structure The framework of a work of literature; the organization or overall design; often provides clues to character and action. style The authors unique manner of expression; the authors voice. syntax The ordering of words into meaningful patterns such as phrases, clauses, and sentences; poets often manipulate syntax, changing traditional word order in an attempt to draw attention to particular words or phrases. theme The central meaning or dominant idea in a literary work; theme provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols, and other elements of a work are organized. tone Style or manner of expression.

A Good Teacher Should Care About Students

A good idea about teacher want them to students is learning use on lesson in the education for understanding and process for Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). It 's so important to know that is use preparation manual in public schools has development for Texas Examinations of Educator Standards (TExES). Because we can help to the student is learning communities for their teacher, staff and parents will discuss getting a meeting in schools. Make sure to have a relationship with parents†¦ A teacher in a general sense is someone that teaches to another person, and I think that teaching is one of the most needed professions there is. By teaching in schools and working with young kids, we are nurturing the minds of people who could have the cure for cancer or find new research about space. And with teaching there are many different philosophies about how teachers should act and interact with their students, but personally I lean more towards a Progressive view of teaching; I believe†¦ Teaching a specialism of any matter requires the teacher themselves to be competent and confident with their own abilities first. To be a competent carpenter requires lots of experience, dedication and time – without dedication, you will not put in the time and in turn not gain the experience. Hence dedication is a fundamental element, which is expressed to all the construction students at Harlow College, in order for them to succeed. Dedication goes hand in hand with motivation, motivation is developed†¦ Should students evaluate teachers? From year to year, educators are evaluated by grade level chairs and administration based on teaching skills and performance in the classroom. Depending the school, a recording of a single class period is used to evaluate a teacher. But what happens after the camera stops recording, and who is there to witness what happens. The answer is: the students. Despite feelings towards a teacher, based on emotion, students truly understand whether or not a teacher is†¦ Watching the videos on the learning to learn taught me a lot not only about what I was doing wrong but also how these things in the videos would be able to help me in my future classroom. Along with making myself more successful with some of the ideas and skills that were presented in the videos I learned that there are many things that I can teach my students, that I was never taught, that will help make them successful in their school and personal careers. One of the biggest aspects from the video†¦ Teachers should have the right to talk about their students When people have a rough day, and they just want to express their feelings. There are many ways for people to express their feelings, they express through words or action. But out of the two, words are the best way to express peoples ' feelings, because the other way might end up hurting someone or themselves. When I said the words the best way to express the feeling I’m not talking about cursing or yelling, I’m talking about talking†¦ Should Students Be Paid For Good Grades In School? Should students be paid for having good grades? This topic has some really strong arguments on either side. In this research paper I will list facts and argue both sides of this debate. Some people believe paying students for good grades is a bad idea, I personally believe students will strive to do better when they are paid for their work. Lots of schools are paying their students for getting good grades, and others are giving it a try. Why would†¦ In the present age, let the students evaluate their teachers has been widely used in the education sector. The students can judge their teachers whether are good or not. Even when the students are not satisfied with their teachers, they can vote to change the teachers. But, whether the students should evaluate their teachers has sparked spirited debate. Some people assert that students should evaluate their teachers, while many others argue that students should not do that. Then this easy will discuss†¦ The article â€Å"Being a Good Teacher of Black Students? White Teachers and Unintentional Racism,† Nora Hyland writes about the roles of 27 White teachers in the U.S. who identified as good teachers, but held racist views against their students. The school that these teachers taught at was in the Midwestern part of the country. They participated in the reproduction of racial inequality, which can exacerbate racist effects. This article explored the idea that teachers perpetuated the â€Å"status quo† of†¦ Should Students be paid for Good Grades? â€Å"There is no question that people will work hard for money at any age† (Peterson). There are programs around the country trying cash-reward programs out. For example, there are some schools in Washington D.C. trying these cash-reward programs out that give students cash awards for getting good grades and/or test scores. The schools think the incentives are working because test scores are boosting and students are working harder. The cash incentives prove†¦

Nuclear Terrorism Cons & Risks - United States Essay

Nuclear Terrorism Cons & Risks - United States - Essay Example In the eve of Nuclear Security Summit in April 2010, President Barrack Obama pronounced the prospect of nuclear terrorism as the biggest threat to US security in long term, medium term and short term (Michael, 2012). Equally, in the final report of 2011, the Commission reported the threat from terrorists armed with a weapon of mass destruction as the greatest danger faced by America. The Union of Concerned Scientists considers the development of nuclear items as the biggest long-term threat facing the US and International security nowadays. Fenopetov, et.al (2011) noted that the efforts by various countries of the post-soviet space and those extra-regional actors to form an inclusive, cooperative security structure that can deal with new postmodern threats have very little success. Nuclear pose both direct and indirect threats to US security. Direct threats to US security start from the proliferation, nuclear terrorism, unauthorized or inadvertent use and risk of accidents (Below, 2009). The US has several licensed nuclear power reactors that generate a certain percentage of the total energy consumed in the US. The location of several nuclear reactors is near large population centers. Many experts consider US nuclear reactors to be of high-value aim for a terrorist resolute to perpetrate large-scale death and destruction in the United States. A report commissioned by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) showed security vulnerability associated with the energy system. The report noted that the close location to population centers makes those centers prime candidates for strategic nuclear targeting or conventional bombing. Currently, nuclear proliferation is another pressing threat. Mostly those countries that have differences with the US and its allies are likely to acquire nuclear weapons. In pursuit of their ambitions, countries such as Iran and North Korea have violated the non-proliferation duties and defied the

A Critical Evaluation of Your Learning and Development Whilst on Work Assignment

A Critical Evaluation of Your Learning and Development Whilst on Work Placement - Assignment Example The main aim of the module is to enable learning from the entire work experience that includes a focus on knowledge from the workplace and generic skills. These comprise of: induction programs, understanding organizational structures, learning through induction, personal development and critical analysis (Peter, 2009). Much of my educational learning is about gaining of subject knowledge and development the critical and analytical skills related to my subject. This is a very important fact; however, what is also vital is that I can apply this academic knowledge and, more exclusively, the kinds of thinking skills I gained through education to a more practical context of work (Sammon, 2008). With ever changing knowledge, I also need to be very practical and adaptable so as to cope with these demands. Therefore, this module is generally aimed to help me: develop my personal and key skills, increase my employability skills, improve on my strengths and weakness, become a reflective practi tioner, be able to utilize effectively transfer of skills, become an autonomous learner and finally to be able to learn by experience. MODULE STRUCTURE 1) Learning through self-awareness 1.1) knowing and understanding my learning style There are numerous means that a person can learn. The more can be able to understand our preferences to learn, including developing and practicing various ways of learning and hence the more we become effective learners in different contexts (Peter, 2009). According to Kolb (1984), as we grow up, we build up tendencies and preferences to learn new things in some specific way, without essentially noticing that it is so. My learning style is basically linked to Kolb’s four stages of learning as shown below: 1having a strong experience doing 4. Testing planning 3. Conceptulizing 2.reflection/ observation review To be a more effective learner I would wish to improve on these selected areas. 1.2 Personal and key skills Many generic skills are for ef fectiveness at work or daily lives, for instance problem solving, good communication, time management, setting goals. It is actually important to continue to develop your skills at greater levels and in new situations (Sammon, 2008). Personal and key skills self evaluation 1 2 3 4 justification Self management a. Time management b. Dealing with criticism c. Professional responsibility d. Meeting of the objectives, standards and priorities e. Clarification of personal values f. Employment potentials Problem solving a. Identification of the problem b. Critical thinking about the problem c. Conceptualization of the issues d. Identification of the options e. Identify possible solutions f. Implementation of the course of action g. Carry out the solution h. Evaluation and adaption of the solutions and outcomes Working with others a. Planning together b. Respecting the values and views of others c. Delegation, d. initiative, e. negotiation, f. lead Communication a. visual/oral competency b . effective listening c. verbal communication Handling of data a. use of media and appropriate technology with IT b. handling of large amount of data c. translation of data into words d. evaluation and adoption of strategies for handling data and information e. use of sources of information KEY: 1) started but needs more practice 2) able to do if there is some assistance 3) proficient without assistance 4) proficient and able to help others 1.3 strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis This entails an honest and critical reflection of my strengths, weaknesses and areas that I need to develop. It also contains the opportunities that are

The key personal features needed Essay Example for Free

The key personal features needed Essay CASE STUDY: Laurie and Joe want to open up a hairdressing salon. They have had previous experience running and managing a shop and now they want to run their own business. Write a report discussing the key personal features needed, suitable establishment options for Laurie and Joe and finance options they should take into account. Key personal features: To ensure success when establishing a business, laurie and joe need have the three key personal qualities – entrepreneurship, personal qualities (motivation, experience, expectation) and other influences (cultural background, gender). Entrepreneurship: As an entrepreneur, the basic qualities required are to be: Assertive, Determined, Very organised and responsible, Willing to take risks, Good with people, A good leader, Motivated, Dedicated, Confident, Realistic, Healthy, Resilient Laurie and joe must have a desire to succeed and have drive and energy which relates to the personal qualities of a person. A person wanting to establish their own business needs to have motivation, experience and expectation. Personal Qualitities: Motivation: Motivation refers to your personal drive, determination and desire to achieve a goal or objective, in this case setting up a business. There are several reasons for why people start up their own business but it is usually due to: Having independence and being your own boss Choosing the location and fellow employees Gaining more control over own destiny and increasing personal wealth Having something to leave to family Accepting a challenge Security Experience: An experienced person would have: Knowledge of the product and service being entered Skills in management such as communication, ER, accounting and finance, marketing and operations Organizational and customer service skills. It would be best if Laurie and Joe satisfied these requirements in order to have the best chance at a successful business. Expectation: Expectation relates to the person’s level of ambition and self confidence. Someone with high expectations will have a vision for the future of the business. Some expectations that Laurie and Joe should have include: Financial rewards Independence Success Role as the boss Security of future employment Opportunity to use skills Other influences: Other influences include cultural background and gender. For laurie and joe, cultural background would not be a big factor for the success of their business as they want to open a hairdressing business. With gender, Laurie and Joe would just have to consider if they will be open to both genders and if customers would allow the opposite gender cut their hair. Suitable establishment options: Before setting up their own business, laurie and joe must choose one of three establishment options – starting from scratch, buying an existing business or buying a franchise. There are advantages and disadvantages for all three options so Laurie and Joe must pick the one most suitable for a hairdressing business. Starting from Scratch: Starting a business from scratch usually only occurs when: A new product is being introduced on to the market Existing businesses aren’t meeting customer needs There is a large demand and the market is growing. If these circumstances don’t exist, it would be more difficult to start from scratch. However as Laurie wouldn’t be providing a new product, only the last two circumstances would need to be considered. Although it can be difficult to start a business from scratch, there are some advantages: The owner has the freedom to set up the business the way they wish If funds are limited you can start on a small scale There is no goodwill to pay for The owner can determine the growth of the business The owner can choose the location However, as noted above, there are some disadvantages when starting from scratch such as: Time is needed to develop a customer base, employ staff and develop lines of credit from suppliers Profit levels could be low at start up and the business could have liquidity problems There is a high risk of failure and a measure of uncertainty Finances could be hard to obtain As Laurie and Joe want to establish a hairdressing business, it is recommended that they choose to start from scratch as it would be most suited for their needs. Buying an existing business An existing business may be purchased instead of starting from scratch as it may already be a successful business and would have an established customer base, employees, equipment and location. Although there are a few advantages, there are also disadvantages when it comes to buying an existing business. Advantages: Sales to existing customers will bring in automatic income The inventory and supply networks are set up Equipment is available for immediate use Employees could be a good source of advice Previous business owner could provide training and advice If the business had been successful it could be easier to obtain finances Disadvantages: Some employees may resent any changes to the business operation The existing business could have had a poor reputation within the community The value of the goodwill could make the business overpriced Assets could be old and overvalued The location can’t be changed and the existing layout may be difficult to change For Laurie and Joe, buying an existing business would be the most suitable†¦. Buying a franchise: A franchise is license by a parent company to an individual to operate the parent company’s business on their behalf. The franchises make up a chain of businesses under the parent companies name. a franchisor is the large organization and a franchisee is the individual(s) that operates the business on behalf of the company. Finance Options: Laurie and Joe have two options when it comes to how to finance the establishment of the business. The two options are owner’s equity and debt finance. Critical issues in business success and failure: When Laurie and Joe first start their business, there are five critical issues to be aware of. They are: Having a business plan Identifying and sustaining competitive advantage Using technology Avoiding overextension of finance Managing cash flow While most small business fail in the first couple of years, careful attention to these critical issues will help the business to succeed. Having a business plan A business plan is the blueprint for future growth and development within a business. It sets out the desired goals and strategies to direct the business. A business plan is essential to long-term success and must be followed. It should also be modified when there are changes in: Technology The competition The economy The customer’s needs When setting up a business plan, Laurie and Joe would need to consider the prime function of the business, the mission statement, plans and strategies and budgeting. Laurie and Joe should also include why they want to establish the business, the goals they wish to achieve, the steps necessary to achieve their goals and the time frame in which the steps and goals should be achieved. Identifying and sustaining competitive advantage Sustainable competitive advantage refers to the ability of a business to develop strategies that will ensure it has an ‘edge’ over its competitors for a long period of time. To have a sustainable competitive advantage Laurie and Joe would need to think about pricing (higher or lower than competitors, prestige pricing), quality, value (a good price for the quality of product/service) and the features of their product or service. Laurie and Joe would be best off charging the same price as competitors but provide a better quality service and hair products. Laurie and Joe could also think about using the differentiation strategy in which they would offer customers something that is not already offered by competitors. Use of technology Technology is having many effects on businesses and the advancements and changing technology are allowing business to advertise and communicate to customers in more convenient ways. As Laurie and Joe are setting up a hairdressing business, technology wouldn’t be a big factor. A hairdressing business wouldn’t rely on internet applications such as e-commerce and most likely wouldn’t even have a website. The only technologies a hairdressing business would require are EFTPOS machines so that customers don’t have to pay cash which therefore widens the customer base. Avoiding overextension of financing and other resources Overextension of financing and other resources refers to when business owners go over the budget and spending money on resources which are usually financed by external sources such as banks. To avoid overextension of financing and other resources, Laurie and Joe need to pay close attention to gearing, equipment/furniture/stock and budget. Gearing refers to the proportion of debt and equity finance that a business uses to finance its activities. If a business is highly geared then there is a high level of debt resulting in a greater risk. Therefore it would be best for Laurie and Joe’s business to have low gearing, so more equity than debt.

The Age Of Revolt :: essays research papers

â€Å"The Age of Revolt† During each period of life on the planet earth, a new idea, religion, or belief comes about. Each period is characterized by having a major idea that is shared among all that is living at the time. Writers and poets that lived in these time periods not only believed in what the others did, but wrote about their dreams and ideas they shared. The age of Romanticism was characterized as a time of love, but if a person was to examine a poem or work that was written during this time period they will realize it was not just a time of love at all. The Romantic period was gilded to be happy and peaceful, but it really was a time of revolt, world wonder, and the rejection of intellectualism (Essay topic page). About one hundred and fifty years before the Romantic period was the Restoration time period. Poets and writers during the time wrote in a dull style that had very little imagination. They wrote of actual occurrences and told things the way they were. Toward the end of the Restoration and into the Romantic period, writer and poets began to write creative stories and poems that seemed to contradict the literature from the time before. Poets like Coleridge would write of unusual or supernatural things, and writers like Mary Shelly who wrote the gruesome tell of Frankenstein. One example of a supernatural idea is in Frankenstein when the lead character Victor Frankenstein say’s â€Å"I had glazed on him while unfinished; he was ugly then; but when those muscles and joints capable of motion, it became a thing such as even Dante could not have conceived.† The poems and stories of this time are so different from the Restoration time period, a person can only fathom that the w riters at the time are just revolting from the time before. The writers were just sick of the dull writing style before them and they set out to prove a point. During the Restoration time period people did not care about the earth and nature. All they cared about was themselves and what people thought of them in their social class. Social class was a major issue during the Restoration, for example in Chaucer’s the Canterbury the different characters in the story range in class from a Knight, to a Pardoner. Toward the end of the Restoration and into the Romantic time period writers began to ignore the social class issue and they became more concerned with the earth and universe.

Developing and maintaining trust at work Essay

Developing and maintaining trust at work is essential for structure and balance within the working environment and for a business to be successful in its chosen fields. Trust is built on the following, respect, honesty, integrity, communication, attitude, approachability, manners and commitment. Trust can be broken down by using a trust model that then incorporates decision-making factors and situational factors. Decision making factors consist of the following: How risk tolerant is the trustee? How well adjusted is he/she? Situational factors consist of the following: How similar are the parties involved? How secure do the parties feel? Does the trustee show concern? Have they shown predictability and integrity? Do the parties have good communication between them? How much power do they have? Confidentiality is important for building and keeping trust in the work place, from senior managers down to the different departments within the business and onto the different workstations on the shop floor. When an employee confides in a person, who is in a position of trust, it is then that persons responsibility to keep and make sure that the information given to them is kept in the strictest confidence unless told otherwise by the trustee. Any breach of this confidentiality will break down trust between the parties involved and do serious damage to any respect that existed between them it would also have an knock on effect through all departments within the organisation and in worse case scenarios it could lead to legal action being carried out. Building the team An example of a group in my place of work is our start of shift meeting between the shift manager/myself the team leader/cell leaders/logistics charge hand/ line leaders from packing and assembly/the maintenance department. The shift manager would then â€Å"chair† the meeting and explain the running of the shift that day i.e. any changeovers, the availability of paper and labels and any quality issues found from the day before by the shift following us in. The manager would then give us our overall meterage figure from the day before. Everyone would then inform the manager of any immediate manning or relevant issues within their departments. All department heads would return to their respected work areas and relay the relevant information to their teams. I myself after having a face to face brief with my manager and my cell leaders would return to my cell and brief my team which (depending on the time in the season ) Consists of four machine operators and two packers of any relevant issues that could affect our cell for that day. I would then take the time to address any problems that immediately would face us i.e. Health and safety in our immediate area and surrounding area, housekeeping issues, machine target speeds and any other problems my operators/packers may have I also then delegate everyone on their individual tasks for that day. When groups are formed they go through different stages before they can become effective and established. The four stages were first recognised by Bruce Tuckman, these stages are Forming/Storming/Norming and Performing.I can recognise and relate to these four stages in my work place. As a team/cell leader my cell consists of four machine operators, which is usually a mix of both permanent and temporary staff. At the start of our busy period/season im given between one and two new temporary machine operators for a period of a fortnight for training they first get introduced to the other members in my cell and start to learn what is expected of them by the company, And what is expected of them by me within the cell this is the Forming stage. Once the operator has met certain standards and requirements and has shown an ability to combat and recognise our biggest enemy which is waste I sign the operator off on my check sheet and then they will be allocated a machine to run on their own within the cell, They will start to become more confident in their own ability and the environment in the cell, I will try and encourage the operator to voice their opinions and concerns regarding decisions I make within the cell, This is the Storming stage. The temporary operator should now be feeling like one of the team and should be hitting their meterage targets and now will be confident to share any ideas they might have with myself and the rest of the team. This is the Norming stage. Everyone in the cell as a whole is hitting their production targets and the temporary operator is feeling established and comfortable of running any machine in the cell and running a machine through break on break cover with another operator without supervision. This is the Performing stage. Tuckman added a fifth stage which is Mourning, This stage does occur in a cell when the team loses a valuable member to another cell and when the temporary operator leaves at the end of the season. It does have a significant effect in my experience on my team’s morale, structure and sometimes even their attitude.

Eatright

CHAPTER ONE (1) 1. 0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1. 1INTRODUCTION The game of football of which Americans call soccer, has engulfed the world serving as a means of entertainment for its audiences, profession for those who play the game, business for those who invest in it and finally as a unifying tool for peacemakers. All these have been as a result of the growth of football in these past years. The game of football has grown faster than any other sport in history, doubling in its number of viewers every two to three years (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).The growing importance and popularity given to football as a sport has resulted in enormous researches to determine dietary intakes relevant for individuals undertaking such sport and nutritional influences on soccer performance (Kirkendall et al, 1993). Notwithstanding , the level of seriousness given to the dietary intakes of players and nutritional influences of foods taken, is lower in developing countries than in the developed ones although some aspects of football development has been launched in some of these developing countries.Besides this, a developing country may be rated amongst the third world countries of the world, the Republic of Ghana has found itself swooped along with this pandemic that is virtually ruling the world today. In this case we can cite the case of Egypt, that in the last years have shown a very high growth in football achievements, and the case of Ghana, that has already reached a good level of development of the game with respect to achieving laurels.In the last two decades, this sport has gained tremendous attention by sports scientists (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). The net performance of a football player is as a result of the combination of talent, appropriate training and good nutrition. The latter of which has an effect on the preceding two (talent and appropriate training) has being the aspect neglected by clubs and even players in particular.The dietary pattern and food habits of footba ll players determines their nutritional status, as in eating more, less or just as recommended, eating appropriate or junk foods and as to whether nutrients consumed from food fill gaps created by mechanisms resulting in energy expenditure. The game is characterized by periods of low to moderate aerobic exercise interrupted by frequent activities of short duration and high intensity, such as sprinting, jumping, and tackling.It is obvious that such an energy-demanding sport requires proper dietary programmes that will restore or even super-compensate body energy stores and enhance the activity pattern of players during training and competition (Martin et al, 2006). The energy needs for an individual varies according to their age, sex and the physical activities they perform during the day. Healthy male individuals present an average energy demand of 2900 kcal ·day-1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a professional soccer player's energy demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998). It should be acknowledged that these values for soccer players vary, and energy needs are met if the dietary pattern and food habits of a player provides the recommended requirements coupled with the appropriate physical activity as energy expenditure depends on the frequency and intensity of training sessions, exercises and matches which can affect the nutritional status of an individual (Clark et al, 2003). 1. 2PROBLEM STATEMENTMany researchers have studied the dietary habits of soccer players in an attempt to examine whether the reported diets fulfill dietary recommendations. The vast majority of these studies have examined players at especially Europe and a few times at the southern Americas. A large number of players, however, compete at the African region which is usually a pool from which foreign professional clubs in places like France, England, Italy and Germany choose their members to form their squads.Requirement specifications in these studies are difficult to apply to participants in this part of the world as they differ in terms of the geographical area, climatic and weather condition, morphological and physiological features, social setting, available foods altering patterns and habits-to mention a few (Lemon,1994). Few studies have examined the dietary habits of lower level soccer players. Furthermore, another aspect of particular importance that has not received much attention is the diet of soccer players during the game day and especially the pre-competition meal and the food they consume during after-game recovery.A proper pre-game meal will facilitate body energy stores before competition by helping to top up muscle and liver glycogen stores, something that may enable players to cover greater distances in the field and at higher speeds than they would with suboptimal glycogen levels (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). Also, optimal dietary intake in the hours after the game will ensure rapid recovery (Burke et al, 2003). All participating teams at the 2006 world cup had a nutritionist/dietician in their technical setup (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).Also 19 out of 20 premier league teams in England have a nutritionist/dietician in their setup (Article-peak performance, 2005). On the contrary, the growing importance given to nutrition in football has not really gained grounds in Africa as out of the 8 teams that participated in the just ended CAF champions’ league, only 2 teams had a nutritionist (CCL report, 2009). In Ghana, research has shown that only two teams out of 16 in the elite division have a nutritionist (Ghanafa. com, 15/01/10).In this case, players are left unguided to develop dietary patterns and food habits that might not be beneficial with respect to their chosen profession. 1. 3PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this study is to assess the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers in Real T amale United Football Club in Tamale Metropolis. 1. 4JUSTIFICATION With the growing interest in football in Sub Saharan Africa, specifically Ghana, there is the need for researches into the nutritional needs of it participants.Most information on dietary patterns, food habits, energy demands, training and conditioning strategies are extrapolated from researches on individuals out of this part of the world especially Europe and the Americas. This research will review the nutrition needs, energy expenditure, dietary patterns and habits of Ghanaian professional footballers and to identify what is not known to serve as a baseline data to encourage research in these populations. It will also establish the demands of a professional footballer in conditions here in Africa, specifically Ghana and also what influences these demands. . 5RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1. 5. 1GENERAL OBJECTIVES The research aims at assessing the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional football ers in the Real Tamale United Football Club which is in the Tamale metropolis. 1. 5. 2SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ?To assess the factors that influence dietary pattern and food habit of footballers. ?To assess the type of foods (macronutrients) commonly consumed by professional footballers. ?To assess the nutritional status of footballers in the club. ?To determine the physical activity level of footballers. To determine average energy expenditure of the footballers. ?To determine whether professional footballers meet their energy requirement. CHAPTER TWO (2) 2. 0LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this literature review is to summarize available research that is related to the concept of the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers and the evaluation of its relevance and effects on nutritional status. The review includes sections devoted to various existing researches on dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers.A second section will take snap shots into sports nutrition, particularly in football (soccer), and a brief description of requirement specifications of dietary intakes for professional footballers. 2. 1 SOME EXISTING RESEARCHES ON DIETARY INTAKES AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS There are quite a number of researches on the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers in the sciences area. Some are still being developed, and yet some are under considerations which are likely to possess some amount of knowledge as the game gains popularity and participation.Whatever be the case, one particular type of research might not contain just too much information or knowledge a professional footballer needs. The opposite is true, as knowledge in the sport does not necessarily trigger appropriate dietary patterns and food habits. As such, it is necessary to know the requirement specifications of participants and compare them to available acce pted research publication requirement specifications for a professional footballer in order to make the best choice.The requirement specifications might take into consideration, the geographical location, climatic and weather conditions, morphological and physiological features, social setting, available foods-just to mention a few. There is no doubt that the type, amount, composition, and timing of food intake can dramatically affect exercise performance, recovery from exercise, body weight and composition, and health (Burke et al, 2003). Good nutritional practice is essential to athletic success by improving the quality of training, maximizing performance and speeding recovery time.Soccer is described as a high intensity intermittent sport involving continual changes in activity (Hargreaves, 1994). When exercise or physical work increase to more than 1 hour per day, the importance of adequate energy and nutrient intakes becomes more critical (Manore, 2004). The dietary patterns an d food habits developed by individuals involved in such energy demanding sport determines their nutrient intake, coupled with demands of physical activity, have a collective influence on performance and nutritional status (Clark et al, 2003). 2. 2DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS OF FOOTBALLERSAll humans eat to survive. They also eat to express appreciation, for a sense of belonging, as part of family customs, for self-realization and due to their occupation and profession. For example, someone who is not hungry may eat a piece of cake that has been baked in his or her honour. People eat according to  learned behaviors  regarding etiquette, meal and snack patterns, acceptable foods, food combinations, and portion sizes. Individuals develop some kind of behaviors as a result of what goes on around them and they maintain these new behaviors as the best suitable for them (Bandura, 1997).The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioural patterns , while also providing the basis for intervention strategies (Bandura, 1997). The more a person is exposed to a food and encouraged to eat it, the greater the chances that the food will be accepted (C. Nti, 2009). As the exposure to a food increases, the person becomes more familiar and less fearful of the food, and acceptance may develop (C. Nti, 2009). Some persons only eat specific foods and flavour combinations, while others like trying different foods and flavors (Rodriguez, 2009). . 2. 1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PATTERNS OF FOOD HABITS To live one must eat. But, we not  only eat to live, what we eat also affects our ability to keep healthy, do work, to be happy and to live well. Knowledge of what to eat and in what quantities is a prerequisite to the healthy and happy life (Rodriguez, 2009). The average nutritional requirements of groups of people are fixed and depend on such measurable characteristics such as age, sex, height, weight, and degree of activity and rate of growth (Martin et al, 2006).Good nutrition requires a satisfactory diet, which is capable of supporting the individual consuming it, in a state of good health by providing the desired nutrients in required amounts. It must provide the right amount of fuel to execute normal physical activity. If the total amount of nutrients provided in the diet is insufficient, a state of under nutrition will develop. What and how people eat is determined by a variety of factors, including economic circumstances, cultural norms, and religious restrictions  (Judith C. Rodriguez, 2009).Some factors influencing food choices include preferences, ethnicity, values, habits, availability, health and nutrition. Dietary patterns, which are affected by a number of reasons, some of which are enumerated above, determine the nutritional and health status of people (Krause and Mahan, 1984). Regardless of the factors influencing dietary patterns, adequate food intake is essential as nutritional well-being plays an imp ortant role in health promotion and maintenance. Diet may influence the risk of developing certain chronic diseases and plays a role in preventing morbidity and mortality.Eating habits are thus the result of both external factors, such as politics, and internal factors, such as values. These habits are formed, and may change, over a person's lifetime. There is little research on the dietary patterns and food habits of soccer players, this notwithstanding, studying intakes gives some amount of information on their diet patterns. Professional footballers develop a habit of reducing the intake of carbohydrates and fats and increasing intake of proteins and vitamins with the knowledge of preventing increases in weight (Manore, 2000). This is not the case as R. J.Maughan (2000) recommended increased intake of carbohydrate in particular looking at the nature of the sports which is energy demanding. He did this after studying the macronutrient intakes of two elite teams in Scotland. Indivi duals have some sort of perceptions that go with the kind of profession they choose and football players are not left out. The fact that one is a professional footballer could alter the dietary pattern and food habit of that person. Also, availability of food (the individual’s environment) influences the range of food choices he or she can make. 2. 3ENERGY AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ACTIVE INDIVIDUALSMeeting energy needs is the first nutritional priority for athletes and one of the most frequently asked questions is â€Å"How much should I eat to stay fit and healthy? † A healthy diet contains the right proportions of carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins and minerals (Maughan, 2000). Carbohydrates and fats are the major sources of energy although energy can be obtained from protein. Active individuals need more energy (calories) each day than their sedentary counterparts-assuming individuals are of the same age, body size and participate in similar non-physically act ive daily activities (Manore, 2000).Exercise requires energy to fuel and repair the muscles, thus, meeting one’s energy needs to maintain body weight should be a priority for any athlete or active individual (Clark et al, 2003). Energy balance is achieved when the energy consumed (sum of energy from food, supplements and fluids) equals energy expenditure (sum of all the energy expended by the body in movement or to maintain body functions) (Swinburn and Ravussin, 1993). Knowing whether one is in energy balance is simple: weight is maintained.If energy intake does not cover the costs of energy expenditure, then weight and muscle mass are lost, and the ability to perform strenuous exercise typically declines (Black et al, 2000). When energy intake is restricted, fat and muscle mass will be utilized for energy to fuel the body, and the loss of muscle mass will result in the loss of strength and endurance. Additionally, chronically low energy intake usually results in poor nutrie nt intakes, including carbohydrate, protein, vitamins and minerals.Exactly how much energy an active individual needs each day will depend on a number of factors, including age, gender, body size, level and intensity of physical activity and activities of daily living. The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 2002 reviewed the energy needs of active and very active individuals and provided some general recommendations based on age and body size. In general, the first goal of an active individual is to maintain adequate energy intake to ensure that a healthy body weight is maintained.Although this seems like a simple task, there are many active individuals who find this difficult to do. For these individuals, a dietary plan that assures meals and snacks are not skipped will improve energy intake and help maintain weight (Manore, 2000). Finally, energy needs typically decrease with age, so even if activity levels do not change, the amount of energy requ ired to maintain body weight will decrease. For this reason, body weight typically increases with age, even if activity levels remain constant (Black et al, 2000). 2. 4MACRONUTRIENT CONSUMPTIONCarbohydrate, protein and fat are important nutrients for active individuals, but the amounts of these macronutrients needed will depend on an individual’s physical activity, its intensity, duration and frequency, the type of exercise engaged in, and their health, body size, age and gender (Maughan, 2000). Macronutrient recommendations for those engaged in daily physical activity are given below and in Table 2. 1. Table 2. 1 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individuals Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individualsNutrientNew Guidelines-2002Old Guidelines-1989Guidelines for Active Individuals Carbohydrate45-65% of total energy? 50% of total energyThe amount of carbohydrate required for mode rate intensity exercise is 5-7 g/kg body weight; 7-12 g/kg body weight for high intensity endurance activities Protein10-35% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of bodyweight10-15% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of body weightProtein requirements are typically higher in active individuals. Recommendations range from 1. 2-1. 7 g of protein/kg body weight. This level of protein typically represents 15% of total energy.Fat20-35% of total energy? 30% of total energyFat intakes between 20-35%. Carbohydrate and protein needs should be met first. IOM, 2002. FNB, 1989. Burke et al, 2004; Tipton and Wolfe, 2004. 2. 4. 1Carbohydrate needs The mix of fuel (protein, fat, carbohydrate) burned during physical activity depends primarily on the intensity and duration of the activity performed, one’s level of fitness, and prior nutritional status. All other conditions being equal, as exercise intensity increases the use of carbohydrate for energy will also increase (Brooks & Mercier, 1994; Brooks & Trimme r, 1995).The duration of exercise also changes substrates use. As duration of exercise increases (e. g. , from 60 to 120 min), muscle glycogen becomes depleted, causing the body to draw on circulating blood glucose as a source of carbohydrate (Clark et al, 2003). If blood glucose cannot be maintained within physiological range during exercise, the ability to perform intensity exercise will decrease (Coyle et al. , 1986). Fat can be used as a source of energy over a wide range of exercise intensities; however, the proportion of energy contributed by fat decreases as exercise intensity increases.In these circumstances, carbohydrate becomes the dominant fuel source while the contribution from fat decreases (Bergman et al. , 1999). Protein can also be used for energy at rest and during exercise; however, in well-fed individuals it probably provides 4. 0 and TEE of 33 MJ/d in a bicycle race and a polar exploration. The maximum for a sustainable way of life may be that represented by sold iers on active service, with a mean PAL of 2. 4 and TEE of 18 MJ/d (Black et al, 2002). Among athletes in training, mean PALs is 2-3. 5, with TEE ranging from 11 to 18 MJ/d in women, and from 15 to 30 MJ/d in men (UNU, 2004).PALs greater than 2. 4 were obtained in periods of ‘rigorous training', which is unlikely to be a sustained lifestyle. The lower values for PAL, 2. 0-2. 3, were obtained in periods of apparently routine training and may well be sustained for extended periods of time (UNU, 2004). Table 2. 4 Characteristics and energy expenditure (obtained by DLW) in different age and sex groups by UNU, 2004. Age group (y)nAge (y)Height (m)Weight (kg)BMI (kg/m2)   means. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298924. 4(3. 7)1. 66(0. 06)69. 2(22. 3)25. 3(8. 1) 30-397633. 8(3. 0)1. 64(0. 07)67. (13. 9)25. 2(4. 9) 40-644751. 6(8. 3)1. 65(0. 07)70. 0(13. 3)25. 9(4. 6) Males 18-295622. 5(3. 5)1. 77(0. 07)75. 6(18. 4)24. 0(5. 3) 30-393634. 3(3. 3)1. 79(0. 06)86. 1(31. 4)26. 8(8. 8) 40-641550. 6(8. 8)1. 76(0. 06)77. 0(10. 0)24. 9(3. 0) TEE (MJ/d)BMR (MJ/d)AEE (MJ/d)PAL Age group (y)nmeans. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298910. 4(2. 2)6. 2(1. 1)4. 2(1. 7)1. 70(0. 28) 30-397610. 0(1. 7)6. 0(0. 6)4. 1(1. 5)1. 68(0. 25) 40-64479. 8(1. 7)5. 8(0. 7)4. 0(1. 4)1. 69(0. 23) Males 18-295613. 8(3. 0)7. 5(1. 2)6. 3(2. 5)1. 85(0. 33) 30-393614. 3(3. 1)8. 2(1. 8)6. 1(2. 5)1. 77(0. 1) 40-641511. 5(1. 7)7. 0(0. 8)4. 5(1. 3)1. 64(0. 17) The FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (2004) suggested the average daily energy requirement of adults whose occupational work is classified as light, moderate, or heavy, expressed as a multiple of BMR, to be as follows: LightModerateHeavy Men1. 551. 782. 10 Women1. 561. 641. 82 2. 7. 2Methods of determining caloric needs There are many different methods and formulas used to determine caloric maintenance level or energy expenditure by taking into account the factors of age, sex, height, weight, lean body mass, and activity le vel.Any method and formula that takes into account lean body mass (LBM) gives the most accurate determination of energy expenditure, but even without LBM a reasonably close estimate can be attained. 2. 7. 3Equations based on BMR. A much more accurate method for calculating total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) is to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR) using multiple factors, including height, weight, age and sex, then multiply the BMR by an activity factor to determine TDEE (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). BMR is the total number of calories your body requires for normal bodily functions (excluding activity factors).This includes keeping your heart beating, inhaling and exhaling air, digesting food, making new blood cells, maintaining your body temperature and every other metabolic process in your body. In other words, your BMR is all the energy used for the basic processes of life itself. BMR usually accounts for about two-thirds of total daily energy expenditure. BMR may vary dramatically fr om person to person depending on genetic factors. BMR is at its lowest when you are sleeping undisturbed and you are not digesting anything.It is very important to note that the higher your lean body mass is, the higher your BMR will be (Burke et al, 2004). This is very significant if loss of body fat is needed because it means that the more muscle you have, the more calories you will burn. Muscle is metabolically active tissue, and it requires a great deal of energy just to sustain it. It is obvious then that one way to increase BMR is to engage in weight training in order to increase and/or maintain lean body mass. In this manner it could be said that weight training helps you lose body fat, albeit indirectly (Clark et al, 2003). . 7. 4The Harris-Benedict formula (BMR based on total body weight) The Harris Benedict equation is a calorie formula using the factors of height, weight, age, and sex to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR). This makes it more accurate than determining ca lorie needs based on total bodyweight alone. The only variable it does not take into consideration is lean body mass. Therefore, this equation will be very accurate in all but the extremely muscular (will underestimate caloric needs) and the extremely overfat (will overestimate caloric needs). Mathematically; Men: BMR = 66 + (13. X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) – (6. 8 X age in years) Women: BMR = 655 + (9. 6 X wt in kg) + (1. 8 X ht in cm) – (4. 7 X age in years) Total daily energy expenditure is calculated by multiplying BMR by a multiplier (PAL). 2. 7. 5Katch-McArdle formula (BMR based on lean body weight) This formula from Katch & McArdle takes into account lean body mass (weight) and therefore is more accurate than a formula based on total body weight. The Harris Benedict equation has separate formulas for men and women because men generally have a higher LBM and this is factored into the men's formula.Since the Katch-McArdle formula accounts for LBM, this single for mula applies equally to both men and women. Mathematically; BMR (men and women) = 370 + (21. 6 X lean mass in kg) To determine TDEE from BMR, you simply multiply BMR by the activity multiplier: the physical activity level. 2. 8SNAPSHOTS INTO GENERAL SPORTS NUTRITION AND NUTRITION IN FOOTBALL (SOCCER) In every day to day activity in life on earth, maintaining a good health within and without has being the main aim of humans in general. This is not different from that of football players, as keeping fit and playing regularly void of injuries has being the motive.Training and Diet plays a major role in this behaviour and keeping track of the latter (diet patterns and habits) becomes cumbersome with a lot of lapses coming up every now and then. Football was, for a long time, classed as an endurance sport due largely to the fact that a football match lasted at least 90 minutes. As a result, the nutritional requirements of football players were extrapolated from early scientific research carried out in relation to other ‘endurance sports’ such as running and cycling.It is true that the duration of a football match is normally 90 minutes; however, the training loads associated with these sports are vastly different (Maughan, 2000). On closer inspection it becomes clear that daily energy expenditure of professional football players may not be particularly high. Football players are generally inactive when not training and training load will vary, depending on factors such as the stage of the season, or whether tactical or fitness drills predominate in training.If football players were to consume 7-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight each day (a recommendation found in many textbook) then a quick calculation that included reasonable amounts of protein and fat would generate a daily energy intake closer to 4,200kcal (Maughan, 2000). In Scandinavia this may be closer to the truth. Once the playing season gets underway the Scandinavian subjects typically t rain seven times per week (Manore, 2000). So it is not surprising that energy intakes will exceed 4,000kcal in a country like Sweden (Clark et al, 2003).An athlete’s diet must be high in carbohydrate, moderate in protein, low in fat, include sufficient vitamins and minerals, and plenty of fluid. ’ This was the original model with which many football nutritionists and players used to work (Article-peak performance, 2009). Although very simple, much of it still holds today. However, understanding the game has improved; nutritionists have been able to tease out strategies from each of the model’s sub-sections that more closely match the requirements of our sport. What is different is that science no longer holds ll the cards. Football has caught up with science and is now dictating where research efforts are directed. For, example, the glycemic index of foods, a ranking of foods based on their immediate effect on blood glucose, has become a particularly useful tool in football. Five years ago the approach in football was to advocate a high carbohydrate, low fat diet at all times. Any food that at all met these requirements would be recommended to players in a bid to maximise muscle glycogen storage for training and competition.Now a more measured approach is employed with the glycemic index and, to a lesser extent, the insulin index utilised in a bid to control body composition as well as carbohydrate provision (Article-peak performance, 2009). Emphasis is now placed more on achieving optimum carbohydrate intake prior to matches, and during the recovery period after matches, particularly when some clubs find themselves involved in up to three games per week in the busiest part of the season. Good attitudes to reducing fat intake are now a commonplace in the modern player.Emphasis is placed on increasing intake of certain fatty acids that are found to be lacking in players’ diets. When performing dietary analyses of players, low intakes of essential fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA; docosahexenoic acid, DHA) are consistently reported. Despite the appearance of oily fish in the canteens of football clubs, there may be a case for blanket supplementation in this particular group of sportsmen (Maughan, 2000). There is growing evidence that protein supplementation after training can promote protein synthesis and adaptation of muscle.The type, timing and amount of protein can be manipulated to enhance the adaptive response (Coyle et al, 1999). The work of researchers such as Bob Wolfe and Kevin Tipton in Texas, and Mike Rennie in Dundee (whose primary interest has been likened to ‘preventing older people falling down’) has enabled the design of strategies of protein-intake that may promote better adaptation to training. Despite the progress that has been made in our understanding of the demands of football, there is a need for continued improvement. No other sub-discipline of sports medicine comes wi th so many contrasting views of what is right and wrong.The ‘Zone’ diet, the ‘Atkins’ diet, mass supplementation, the concept of the ‘nutritional guru’ – all are still prevalent in the modern game. Players are becoming more demanding due to conversations with other players from other teams, and also other athletes from other sports. Players from overseas bring with them their own ideas (nearly always related to vitamin intake), but very often lacking in scientific support (Article-peak performance, 2009). In addition, at present there is a fundamental mismatch in what players and practitioners view as important.Players believe in supplements, extra vitamins and minerals: anything that involves increasing muscle mass, and reducing energy intake to achieve ‘lean’ body composition. Scientific research, on the other hand, demonstrates that players should concentrate more on appropriate energy intake, and high carbohydrate and fl uid intake. Sports nutrition is important in football because food provides us with energy for our muscles, brain and other organs. Football requires plenty of exercise, and therefore it is important to have energy available during the game. The energy available at any particular time depends on blood sugar levels.If we over-eat, we become over-weight. The heavier we are, the more work our muscles have to do to take us the same distance. This reduces stamina, and the ability to accelerate quickly. If we under-eat, we can become weak and our overall health can decline, because we are not getting enough nutrients. A healthy diet improves general level of health, and can help recovery more quickly from injuries (Clark et al, 2003). Along with a program of fitness training, diet can help develop stamina and improve athletic performance (Maughan, 2000). Diet is essential for our growth, and development.The timing of the meals consumed is important. Healthy male individuals present an ave rage energy demand of 2900kcal ·day-1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a professional soccer player's energy demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. , 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998a). It should be acknowledged that these values for soccer players vary from week to week, and energy expenditure depends on the frequency and intensity of training sessions, exercises and matches. In soccer, players require a diet with a high percentage of carbohydrates (Rico-Sanz et al. 1998).On the day of a match the intake of fat and protein should be restricted, as these nutrients require a relatively long time to be digested. Pre-competition meal must be 3-4 hours before the match (Bangsbo et al. , 2006). The pre-competition meal should be: high in carbohydrate (this is the fuel that your body needs to perform at the highest level), low in fat, low in protein, low in fiber, not too bulky, and easy to digest. A snack high in carbohydrate may be eaten about 2 hours before the match; however the time reference is only a guideline as there are great individual differences in the ability to digest food.Once the game is over, fluids should be replaced and carbohydrate should be consumed as soon as possible to promote recovery of glycogen stores. As soon as possible aim to consume a meal which is high in carbohydrates. Foods such as pasta, spaghetti, rice, noodles, low fat pasta sauce, bread, potatoes, and baked beans should be consumed during this period (Manore, 2000). Carbohydrate rich foods must be the main source of your diet. Consume the main bulk of the diet from complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates should not be consumed in large quantities and are more useful as snacks between workouts, or to top up your energy intake.The carbohydrate consumed should be balanced with a healthy intake of protein, low fat and plenty of fruit and vegetables. The water lost from the body during sweating needs to be replaced to sto p the process of getting tired quickly, and also speed up the recovery process – that means feeling fitter and sharper afterwards a lot sooner. For footballers, the best fluid to drink is a diluted carbohydrate/electrolyte solution; ideally, it’s best to drink before, during and after a training session, as well as drinking frequently during a match (peak performance, 2009).After all matches, players should attempt to ingest enough carbohydrate-containing sports drink to replace all the fluid they've lost during competition. After strenuous workouts, water should also be replaced, and football athletes need to eat at least 500 calories of carbohydrate during the two hours following practice in order to maximize their rates of glycogen storage. CHAPTER THREE (3) 3. 0METHODOLOGY The research aims at assessing the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers, in Real Tamale United Football Club in the Tamale metropolis, and its effect o n nutritional status.The research will answer specific questions about the factors that influence dietary pattern and food habits of footballers, foods/macronutrients commonly consumed by professional footballers; the nutritional status of footballers in the club, the physical activity level of footballers, the average energy expenditure of the footballers and then whether professional footballers meet their energy requirement. 3. 1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA 3. 1. 1Location and Size Tamale metropolis is one of the eighteen districts of the northern region of Ghana. Tamale, the administrative capital of the region is located at the center of the region.The metropolis shares common boundaries with Savelugu/Nanton district on the north, and Tolon/Kumbungu district on the northwest. Also, it is bordered west and central Gonja districts on the south; and east Gonja and Yendi districts on the east. The metropolis occupies a landmass with approximately 922 square kilometers, which is abo ut 13 percent of the total land area of the region (Regional Coordinating Council, RCC, 2010). 3. 1. 2Vegetation and Climate The vegetation of the metropolis is that of a typical guinea savanna zone with tall trees such as neem, shea and kapok, interspersed with grasses.During the rainy season, the vegetation becomes luxuriant, providing green scenery. The dry season is however, characterized by dry grasses with the trees shedding off their leaves as well as an exposed environment to bushfires. As a result of its location in the savanna belt, the metropolis experiences only one rainy season which begins in April/May, attains its peak in July/August and ends in September/October, and a long dry season from November to March. The mean annual rainfall and dry sunshine stands at 1100mm and 7. 5hours respectively.On the average, the metropolis experiences only 95days of intense rainfall. Also, the average maximum and minimum ranges are relatively 33 °C -39 °C and 20 °C -22 °C (Gh ana Meteorological Services, 2010). 3. 1. 3Demographic Characteristics Tamale metropolis has a population of about 350,000 inhabitants which constitutes about 20% of the total population of the region (Ghana Statistical Services, 2008). The metropolis is heterogeneous and encompasses diverse ethnic groups that are the Dagombas, Gonjas, Mamprusi and Akans among others with the dagombas constituting about 80% of the population.Moslems are the predominant religious group followed by Christians. The most important festivals of the people of the metropolis are damba and yam festivals. However, other festivals including Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul Adha, which are Islamic festivals, are celebrated in the area. 3. 1. 4Socio-Economic Characteristics Farming is the major occupation of the people of Tamale. They cultivate rice, maize, guinea corn, cowpea, groundnuts, soybeans, yam and cassava. They also rear animals including sheep, goats, guinea fowls and cattle.However, the crops and animals are mostly produced by peri-urban and rural dwellers. Other economic ventures include groundnut oil extraction and trading by women mostly on small scale. Men are often seen to engage in smock weaving, tailoring, automobile repairs, carpentry and butchery. The increasing levels of educational attainments have contributed to the number of civil servants including teachers, nurses and security personnel among others in the area. 3. 1. 5Foods Consumed A variety of foods are consumed by the people of Tamale and its environs.At home, tuo-zaafi (TZ), a staple food of the Dagombas, which is prepared from maize, is consumed by most people. In general, TZ is consumed with a vegetable-based soup especially dry Okro. In the urban and peri-urban communities, TZ is usually the meal taken at supper, whilst a maize-based porridge or tea is taken as breakfast. In the metropolis, lunch is hardly prepared at home, hence the people choose from a variety of street foods available. Thus, the people in the u rban Tamale consume a lot of street foods including fried yam, rice and beans among others. . 2THE STUDY AREA 3. 2. 1HISTORY OF RTU Real Tamale United, often called as R. T. U. , is a Ghanaian football club based in Tamale in the Northern Region of Ghana. They are a member of the Ghanaian Globacom premier league. Their home stadium is the Tamale Sports Stadium. The club was founded in 1976 by the first chairman Alhaji Adam. The club has 36 players currently, of which 25 were used in this study. With the operational definition of a professional football team and player, RTU was the only team that met the criteria for selection in the Tamale metropolis.The club has only won the Ghana Telecom Gala once in 1997/98 season with three appearances in CAF competitions in 1992, 1996 and 1998 of which they were eliminated in the first round. Recently, the club battled for survival in the Ghanaian Globacom Premiership for two years running. 3. 3THE STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLE SELECTION The popu lation for this study will be male professional footballers in the club. The operational definition of a professional footballer in the context of this study will be an individual who plays elite or first division club football.Football players in the Real Tamale United Football Club, in the Tamale metropolis of the Northern Region, were sampled purposively and used as the representative sample for this study on the basis that the club is based in Ghana, a country well known for its interest in football development; the club participates in the country’s first division known as the premiership which means all players in the club play at the top level of football in the country and finally located in the Northern Region of the country: an area where poverty and illiteracy rates are high which has influences in areas of sports nutrition and performance. . 3. 1SELECTION CRITERIA Thirty five members of the Real Tamale United football squad aged 17-30years were recruited for the s tudy. Only 25 subjects met the requirements of being void of illness and injury carried out during a two day fitness test in the presence of the team physiotherapist. All measurements and data were done at a time when the premier league was ongoing with players playing week in week out matches. 3. 4BODY MASS INDEX: its Calculation Body mass index is based on a weight-to-height ratio that indicates the energy reserves of an individual.BMI is a ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of the height in meters. Heights and weights are therefore the indicators for calculating the BMI of an individual. BMI is the current method for calculating a healthy body weight and is based on the study of a wide variety of people from many countries. The FAO/WHO/UNU (2004) established reference values for comparing the BMI of active individuals. Mathematically; BMI = WEIGHT (Kg) / height (M? ). The unit of BMI is thus, kgm. 3. 5BASAL METABOLIC RATES: its CalculationIt is the minimum amount of energ y needed to keep the body alive and is the largest component of an average person's daily energy expenditure. The BMR is usually expressed simply as kilocalories per day or in units of energy per unit surface area (or per kilogram body mass) per unit time. It is very difficult to determine the absolute minimum metabolic rate, but estimates are usually standardized by being made when a person is resting quietly after at least 8 hours sleep and 12 hours since the last meal.In this study, BMR of subjects was estimated using the Harris-Benedict equation which takes into consideration parameters such as age, height and weight of the individual. Mathematically; BMR (MEN) = 66 + (13. 7 X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) – (6. 8 X age in years). The unit of BMR is therefore kcal/day. 3. 6DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE Physical activity levels of individuals are estimated from daily activities undertaken, taking into consideration its intensity and duration .According to Ainsworth et al (2004), these daily activities are represented as values known as physical activity ratios (PAR values). Considering the intensity and duration of the activity taken with respect to the PAR values, an estimate of the physical activity level (PAL) is determined (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The PAL values are categorized as light, moderate and heavy activity (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004) and when multiplied by the BMR of the individual, an estimation of energy expenditure is determined. Mathematically; PAL = ? (PAR ? DURATION OF ACTIVITY) ? (TIME SPENT IN EACH ACTIVITY) ENERGY EXPENDITURE = PAL ?BMR The unit of energy expenditure is thus, kcal/day or KJ. 3. 7DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION 3. 7. 1Questionnaire The major instrument for collecting the data was semi-structured questionnaire administered to soccer players through self-reporting. The questionnaire was designed to collect quantitative data, but some qualitative data was also gathered as well. The questionnai re was in three forms, namely, the general nutrition knowledge questionnaire which also had sections for anthropometric records, the food dairy and the physical activity dairy (Appendix I, II and III). 3. 7. 2AnthropometryAnthropometry was one of the techniques employed in the data collection and was based on the measurement of only the height and weight of the respondents. The anthropometry was made an integral part of the questionnaire and efforts were made to ensure that these parameters were measured to make the questionnaire completely filled. The procedures employed in carrying out the measurements are elaborated in the sections below. These procedures are based on the FAO/WHO/UNU technical report standards for the measurement of weight and height of physically active individuals. Weight measurementThe subjects were weighed using an electronic bathroom scale with an accuracy of 0. 1kg, before morning training. The subjects wore light clothes as much as possible and on bare foo t before weighing took place. Each subject to be weighed was made to stand upright and in a relaxed manner on the scale with the eyes looking horizontally to the feet and the hand by the sides. The weight was then read and immediately recorded. Height Measurement Heights of the respondents were measured using a wall-mounted stadiometer. Prior to the measurement, it was ensured that the subjects wore neither ootwear, boots nor socks. Each subject to be measured was made to stand upright and erect against the wall, with the heels, buttocks and the upper back touching the wall, the feet close together and the eyes looking straight. A ruler was then placed on the crown of the head towards the stadio measurements and the reading immediately recorded to the nearest 1. 0cm. 3. 7. 3Food intake Subjects were educated and given verbal and written instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in recording food intake in a food intake dairy on a free non-training day.A food intake dairy (Appendix II) was given to each of the participants to be filled according to their daily dietary intake taking into consideration meals, portion sizes, food type and quantity for seven consecutive days ((Bingham, 2000; Tilgner and Schiller, 1991). Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure correct recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. All dairies were collected after seven days. Samples of estimated portion sizes of foods were acquired and weighed using a kitchen weighing scale and recorded to the nearest 0. g. The nutrient composition of the meals was calculated using the FAO food composition table for Africa and reported as a mean of 4 days’ food intake. This data was used to assess nutrient consumption. To assess adequacy in nutrient intake, the results obtained were compared with the FAO/WHO/UNU RDA for physically active adults (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). 3. 7. 4Physical Activity Pattern Subjects were educated and given verba l and written instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in recording, as detailed as possible, information on their daily activity patterns.A physical activity or training dairy (Appendix III) was given to each subject to be filled under sections of activity type and its duration in minutes for seven consecutive days. Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure correct recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. Training sessions were constantly monitored and subjects where individually questioned in cases were irregularities in recording were encountered. Their activities were classified broadly into three categories: light, moderate and heavy. A 7-days’ activity record was compiled for each subject on imilar days when food intake was measured. The activity data were reported as a mean of 4 days’ activity records. This data was used to compute energy expenditure and nutrient requirement for each subject. 3. 7. 5 Observation Several observations were made at the training fields, at camp bases and in homes of the subjects. These dwelled in the kinds of foods consumed and activities undertaken, the places of meal consumption and purchasing. Also, the components of training regimes were observed and recorded. 3. 7. 6Focus-Group Discussion Focus-group discussions were held with subjects on free and camping days.Each discussion group was made up of between eight and twelve individuals with a facilitator and a recorder. The FDGs were meant to reveal certain issues that were not captured by the questionnaire and to confirm the answers provided in the semi-structured questionnaire including the factors that influence certain behaviours of subjects with respect to dietary habits and physical activity. 3. 8THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTS The study seeks to assess the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers of Real Tamale United FC in the Tamale metropolis.Th is is achieved through the assessment of usual food intake and physical activity and the computation of BMI and BMR and the determination of daily energy expenditure. These have being reported as relevant measurement of an athlete’s nutritional status. The first and second objectives of which respectively seek to assess the dietary patterns and food habits and macronutrient consumption are achieved through reported nutrition questionnaires and recorded food consumption for seven consecutive days using the food dairy.The third objective, which seeks to assess the nutritional status of professional soccer players using BMI, was achieved through the measurement of height and weight of the footballers. The fourth and fifth objective, which seeks to determine the physical activity level and average energy expenditure of footballers was achieved through self-reported physical activity dairy for seven consecutive days computed using physical activity ratio with time duration (to att ain physical activity levels) and physical activity levels in multiples of their BMRs (to attain energy expenditure).The sixth and final objective, which seeks to determine whether professional footballers meet their energy requirements was achieved through a self-reported food record dairy for seven consecutive days with nutrient contents of foods consumed computed using the FAO food composition table for Africa. 3. 9STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Data were analyzed using the EpiInfo version 3. 2. 1 and Microsoft Excel computer programme. Results are presented as mean  ±SD, range, graphs, figures and tables. Anthropometric data from players was transformed into BMI to assess their nutritional status and BMR to assess physical activity levels.Dietary and physical activity data from players was transformed into nutrient requirements, physical activity levels and energy expenditure respectively to assess the level of malnutrition. 3. 10ASSUMPTIONS The most obvious assumption is that the sampl e represents the population. Also, it is believed that all instruments have validity and measure the required value. We assume that participants will not modify their habitual diet patterns and food habits during the course of the study week. Finally, we assume that respondents will answer sincerely all questionnaires and report truthfully in both the food and activity dairies. CHAPTER FOUR (4) . 0RESULTS The physical characteristics of the twenty five (25) subjects are shown in Table 4. 1. Out of the 25 subjects studied, only one weighed less than 60kg while the range indicated (57 and 87kg) were the two extreme body weights recorded in this study. Their body mass index (kg/m? ) ranged from 19. 38 to 30. 3 kg/m? ; out of the 25 subjects studied, only two were over the 190cm (1. 9m) while the range indicated (1. 52 and 1. 95m) were the extreme heights recorded in the study. Table 4. 1 Physical characteristics of subjects ParametersMeans (25)SDRange Age (yrs. )23. 684. 2417-30 Weight (kg)70. 647. 657-87 Height (m)1. 69. 41. 52-1. 95 BMI (kg/m? )23. 082. 719. 38-30. 3 4. 1Dietary Patterns and Habits 4. 1. 1Favourite Food Choices of Subjects The general meal patterns were obtained through self-reported food dairies. Porridges and beverages took the highest frequency of consumption in terms of its 7day presence in diets and its frequency among subjects. Records for breakfast shows that baby porridge made from corn, millet or rice, beans and groundnuts (tom brown) is mostly consumed by all subjects (100%). Fufu was the least consumed diet within the 7day period (2days) with Tuo Zaafi recording the least number of subject patronages (7subjects).The results of the common foods taken, their frequencies in the diet and meal times are shown in table 4. 2. TABLE 4. 2 Common foods eaten by players SOURCES OF MACRONUTRIENTS (FOODS)FREQUENCY IN DIET (7DAYS) FREQUENCY OF SUBJECTSEATING MOMENTS Plain rice/jollof rice5days20Lunch and dinner Kenkey (Ga and Fante)3days15Lunch Tu o Zaafi4days7Dinner Banku5days18Lunch and dinner Fried rice and chicken 4days22Lunch and dinner Soups (groundnut, palm nut, light, Okro)3days20Lunch and dinner Porridges (baby, hausa, tom brown)7days25Breakfast Meat and Beef7days21Lunch and dinner Fufu2days11Lunch and dinnerYam (boiled and fried)4days14Lunch and dinner Rice and beans (waakye)5days16Lunch Egg (fried and boiled)3days20Breakfast and lunch beverages (tea, oats, fruit drinks)7days22Breakfast and as a snack fish (fried)3days17Lunch and dinner 4. 1. 2Eating moments An assessment of the usual food pattern revealed that 90. 7% of the players took at least three meals a day. Most meal times skipped were breakfast and lunch, that is, 57. 14% and 28. 57% respectively. Table 4. 3 The eating moments of players in terms of meals skipped Meal TimeFrequencyPercentage BREAKFAST457. 14 LUNCH228. 57 SUPPER114 TOTAL7100 4. 1. Reasons for players food choices The reasons for the choice of foods by the subjects among others included conve nience, lack of money, inability to cook, general sports reasons and food availability. The results indicated (as shown in figure 1) that, 10 of the players made food choices based on sports reasons. Figure 1The reasons for food choices of players 4. 1. 4General Food Habits of Players (Sports Nutrition) From the results obtained from the questionnaire on general sports nutrition, 60% of the players consume fried rice and chicken before a competitive match with 40% consuming plain rice and stew.Players gave various reasons such as its easy and fast digestion, it not been too heavy, it been recommended by coaches and it been the only available food given at the camp base. 68% of players consumed these foods 3-4hrs before a match with 24% and 8% consuming theirs at 4 or more hours and 2-3hrs respectively. Most of the players gave similar reasons for eating at these times as giving the food ample time to digest. 92% of the players take fluids such as bottled water, glucose solution and energy drinks during a match. 88% of the players take 1-3 of 300ml fluid whiles 12% take 4-7 of 300ml of fluid.Snacks consumed before and during a match included energy drinks, glucose mixtures, soft drinks, savouries among others. Most snacks were taken 2hours before a match. 56% of the players take nutrition supplements such as multivitamin capsules, iron and zinc capsules and blood tonics. Reasons such as increasing energy levels, boosting appetite and to aid in the body’s fast recovery were given. 64. 29% of the players take these supplements all the time and they get these supplements from the pharmacy shops. 96% of the players buy wayside foods such as fried rice, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. 2% of the players eat once a while at the restaurant with 44% and 4% eating at times and all the time at the restaurant respectively. 80% of players eat home prepared meals. 4. 2NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF PLAYERS BMI CATEGORIES (kg/m? )FREQUENCYPERCENTAGES (%)INTERPRETATION 0. 05), sugg esting average energy balance was achieved. The mean intakes of the energy producing macronutrients were 37. 18%, 43. 23% and 19. 6% for carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively. When reported as a percentage of total calories, carbohydrate and protein intakes were significantly lower and higher (p > 0. 05) respectively of the recommended levels.Fat intake was significantly higher (p > 0. 05) than the higher value in the recommended range (35%). When macronutrient intake is expressed in g/kg/day (Table 4. 6), carbohydrate and protein intakes fell below and above their recommended ranges. The table below shows the mean energy and macronutrient intake of players. MealsMean of IntakesPercentagesSDRange Total energy intakes (KJ/day) Breakfast763. 2927. 42178. 09256-1019. 4 Lunch1015. 2136. 47227. 22680. 9-1723. 3 Dinner1004. 9836. 12286. 07528-1637 Total2783. 48100451. 551985. 6-4105. 5 Total energy intake in proteins (KJ/day) Breakfast349. 7564. 1294. 97106. 3-437. 2Lunch89. 8816. 48 37. 9930. 8-183. 0 Dinner105. 8519. 461. 5134. 9-253. 4 Total (%TEI)545. 49100 (19. 6)130. 81297-783. 9 Total energy intake in carbohydrates (KJ/day) Breakfast282. 427. 2974. 46116. 7-438. 7 Lunch360. 3234. 8283. 9265. 5-642. 3 Dinner392. 0937. 89129. 15172. 1-790 Total (%TEI)1034. 79100(37. 18)168. 79768. 1-1507. 3 Total energy intake in fats (KJ/day) Breakfast111. 189. 2459. 9433. 2-280. 5 Lunch595. 7349. 5309. 55296-1793. 7 Dinner496. 2941. 25150. 02206. 1-838. 4 Total (%TEI)1203. 20100 (43. 23)373. 25756. 8-2587. 5 TABLE 4. 6The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in terms of meal times.Energy intake from the table above indicates slightly higher levels of consumption at lunch times over dinner times at 1015. 21kcal/day (36. 47%) and 1004. 98kcal/day (36. 12%) respectively. Energy intakes range from 1985. 6-4105. 5kcal/day. Macronutrient intakes were slightly distributed across all meal times. Table 4. 7The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in comparison with FAO/WHO/UNU 2004 reference values. IntakesMeans (kcal/dayPercentageskcal/kg/dayg/kg/dayReference: g/kg/day (%range) Energy (TDEI)2783. 43-39. 4-3500-4300 kcal/day Carbohydrate1034. 7937. 1814. 653. 7-12 (45-65) Protein545. 4919. 67. 721. 91. 2-1. 7 (10-35) Fat1203. 243. 2317. 031. 9- (20-35) TDEE3932. 55-55. 67– TDEI2783. 45-39. 4– TDEE-TDEI1149. 1-16. 27– 4. 4. 2Difference in energy intake and expenditure According to data gotten from both the food and physical activity dairy, the mean energy deficit is 1134kcal/day (16. 1kcal/kg/day). Energy intake was slightly higher than expenditure at point 7, 11 and 20 representing 141. 76kcal/day, 1045. 7kcal/day and 447kcal/day in extra energy respectively. Figure 3 shows the graphical illustration of energy intake as against expenditure.Figure 3Energy intake and expenditure of players CHAPTER FIVE (5) 5. 0DISCUSSION 5. 1DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS The dietary changes observed among these players are consistent with the findings of Rodriguez (2009) on changes in dietary habits as to a high protein intake of players in particular. R. Maughan (2000) suggested that football players tend to consume high intakes of protein with the belief of increasing muscle mass. This was not different with the current study as players consumed high levels of protein based foods due to its easy access and availability within the study area.The players also had habits of consuming foods high in fat leading to its contribution of 43. 23% to total energy intake, as these levels of fat proportion may be detrimental to health (Martin et al, 2006). Cost, availability and convenience were challenges and these made them adapt to the habit of patronizing wayside foods (96%). It is, therefore, not surprising that majority ate fried rice and chicken, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. Although breakfast is an important meal of the day, quite a significant number of players in this study skipped it.Skipping brea kfast may also lead to over eating during the rest of the day. Most of the foods consumed were from staples but these resulted in very low carbohydrate intakes (1034. 79  ± 168. 8 kcal/day). These may be as a result of the poor nutrient content of the foods as a result of poor cooking habits as foods eaten are prepared by food vendors (C. Nti, 2009). Meals consumed before a match was plain rice and tomato stew which may have negative effect on performance, with respect to the tomato stew which is high in fat, and this may hinder the fast release of energy to the body for endurance activities.The over reliance on wayside food and players left to fend for themselves with no amount of supervision may be detrimental to health and nutritional status. Most of these way side foods have very high levels of fat and this may account for the high amount of fat in diets. The eating behaviour of the players might have been influenced by other factors including food availability, convenience an d personal income level, as these obviously determine an individual’s food choice and habit. Thus one cannot eat foods if they are not available, cannot be prepared or cannot be afforded. . 2MACRONUTRIENTS Carbohydrate is the primary fuel substrate during soccer, and consequently high dietary intakes of 45-65% of total calorific intake have been recommended for athletes (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al, 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002) and footballers (Burke et al, 2004; IOM, 2002). In this study, carbohydrate intake was significantly lower than these recommendations (37. 18  ± 6. 1%, p < 0. 05). When expressed relative to body mass (weight), the daily carbohydrate intake of 3. g/kg/day was way below the recommended 7-12g/kg/day for very active individuals (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The current data provide further evidence to the commonly observed low carbohydrate intakes that are insufficient for adequate glycogen replacement in male athletes (R. Maughan, 2000). Dietary recommendations fo r promoting maximal glycogen replacement and for the maintenance of muscle glycogen levels are to consume a high carbohydrate diet, 45-60% (IOM, 2002) and a daily intake of 7-12g/kg/day (Bangsbo et al, 2006).Based upon these recommendations, players in the current study reported carbohydrate intakes that are likely to be inadequate to replace muscle and liver glycogen stores which rapidly deplete during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise performed during training and competition (Bangsbo et al, 2006). Ultimately, both the quality of training and match perform